The primary purpose of this qualitative study was to discover the kinds of issues that were troubling sixth-grade students while they were in school through focus groups which were led by eighth-grade peer helpers in the school, the Natural Helpers. The second purpose of this study was to evaluate the information that the Natural Helpers gathered in the focus groups and to compare this information to the information that the participants reported on a personal problem checklist. Third, the purpose of this study was to keep a tally of the types of worries about which the sixth graders sought help from heir guidance counselor. Fourth, the purpose of this study was to compare these findings to information in the existing literature. The participants were 48 sixth-grade students (21 males and 27 females) whose heterogeneously-grouped classes at a suburban middle school in the Roanoke Valley in Virginia were randomly selected to participate in this study. After the students and the parents of the students signed informed consent forms, the students completed personal problem checklists and participated in one of nine student-led focus groups. Two of the focus groups were exclusively male, two were exclusively female, and the remaining groups contained males and females. Results from the study indicated that the participants reported a variety of worries, but the majority of their discussions pertained to issues concerning grades, social lives, violence, trouble at school, and family issues. The sixth graders reported similar issues as concerns on the personal problem checklist and sought assistance from their guidance counselor for similar concerns. However, there was one main difference in the findings between the three methodologies: the students sought assistance for worries concerning violence and spoke extensively about their concerns regarding violence during the focus groups but did not report violence as a main concern on the problem checklist. Probable reasons for these differences were addressed. Overall, the participants reported many concerns that were similar to the concerns that were reported by other adolescents in the professional literature, and they reported concerns that were consistent with the developmental literature. Exclusively male focus groups, exclusively female focus groups, and mixed focus groups generated similar information with a few noted exceptions regarding the content of their discussions and with a few noted exceptions regarding the extent to which the males spoke during the groups. This study generated recommendations for future research and for the counseling profession. / Ed. D.

Adolescence is a period of development when health-related behaviors can become rooted and subsequently contributes to leading causes of adult morbidity and mortality. The dissertation is based on three studies. The first is a cohort study (n=577) of sixth grade students followed for 2.5 years to assess changes in smoking susceptibility measured by intention to smoke. The second study applies a pre-post design to evaluate the outcomes of a 13-week after-school program and three-day, in-residence University camp on personal and familial factors among 37 sixth grade girls, most of whom were Mexican American. The third study is a cross-sectional study of depression among 80 sixth grade girls, the majority of whom were Mexican American. A survey measured depression severity and familial and individual factors that influence depression. Results showed smoking intention increased nearly six-fold from sixth grade to eighth grade (OR=5.8, 95% CI: 1.19, 3.05). The intervention study resulted in changes from pre to post test in familial and personal factors. The prevalence of depression was 50% among participants in the third study, 38% of girls reported moderate to severe levels. In sum, the greater prevalence of smoking intention over time suggests a norm of acceptance occurring as students' progress through middle school. Protective factors from such attitudes differ by gender and are influenced by the relationships surrounding the adolescent. Similarly, relationships were protective in the study of depression. The father's relationship with his daughter guards against depression as does positive peer relationships. These relationships can be strengthened through interventions as was suggested in the intervention study. Study findings emphasize the protective influence familial and peer relationships have on the developing adolescent.

Parents have a great influence on the lives of their children, even as children develop into adolescents seeking independent identity. Families may find the transition of their children into adolescence difficult as they renegotiate their parenting strategies to allow for their children’s growing desire for independence. Because marital quality has been found to be related to parenting outcomes, the link between the parental and marital roles of a married couple becomes important to understand during the transition of their children into adolescents. The present study uses the Inventory of Father (Parent) Involvement, Social Connectedness Scale, Quality Marriage Index, Couple Commitment Inventory, and Center for Epidemiologic Studies-Depression scale (CES-D). In order to more fully understand how marital quality is linked to parenting quality, this study focused on families that had married parents with early adolescent children. The study had three main goals: (1) to examine predictors of parents’ perceptions of their marital quality and commitment, (2) to examine the associations among marital quality indicators and perceived parenting quality, and (3) to include early adolescent children’s, mothers,’ and fathers’ perceptions of parenting quality. These findings could be used to identify family process or dysfunction. The results of this study indicate that mothers and fathers who have higher household income and fewer depressive symptoms are more likely to have higher quality and more committed marriages than mothers and fathers with lower household incomes and more depressive symptoms. Mothers and fathers who were involved with their early adolescent children reported higher marital commitment than those who were less involved. Fathers who felt connected to their adolescent were also more likely to rate their marital quality more highly than fathers who felt less connected. Adolescent perceptions of high father involvement were more likely when fathers reported high martial quality and commitment. Examining parenting quality from these multiple perspectives may have valuable implications for teaching extension and community classes on marital, parenting, and adolescent development topics.

The purpose of this study is to examine, using both quantitative and qualitative methods, the effect of a two-week adventure recreation program on early adolescent identity development. The study also investigates the influence of gender and the parent-adolescent relationship on this process. Participants in this study included 44 males and 47 females, ages 11-17 (M = 13.4, SD = 1.03), from three western states. Twenty-two males and 23 females participated in the treatment group and the remaining 22 males and 24 females served as controls. The treatment group completed a two-week adventure recreation program, Camp WILD. The program consisted of three different activity areas: backpacking, exploration (e.g., mountain biking, leadership training, wilderness skills, and environmental education) and white water rafting. The quantitative results supported the hypothesis that the adventure recreation program would promote positive adolescent identity development. The data also indicated only limited differences between the developmental impact of the program on males and female participants and that the child-parent relationship exerted only a slight influence on the interaction between the program and identity development. The qualitative data provided further insight into the mechanisms underlying the positive relationship between the adventure recreation program and participants' identity development.

Singing exaggerates the language of reading. The students find their voices in the rhythm and bounce of language by using music as an alternative text. A concurrent mixed methods study was conducted to investigate the use of an interactive sing-to-read program Tune Into Reading (Electronic Learning Products, 2006) as an alternative text, embedded within a heterogeneous music classroom. Measured by the Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 (QRI-4) (Leslie & Caldwell, 2006), the fluency, word recognition, comprehension, and instructional reading level of the treatment students were compared to their counterparts who sang as part of the regular music program. Concurrently, this investigation also provided a description of the peers’ interactions during the literacy task assigned by the music teacher. The intent of this study was to address the following three research questions. First, what is the difference in reading outcomes for students who used the singing software verses the students who sang as part of their regular music curriculum? Second, are the reading outcomes different when the students were grouped by FCAT reading levels? Third, how do the peers interact during the literacy task of singing to read? The first two questions addressed the quantitative phase of this study to assess the collective differences on the dependent variables overtime and by group. The qualitative phase in this study used an interpretive case study approach to describe peer interactions during the assigned literacy task. The study findings suggest that rereading through singing, using the interactive singing program, Tune Into Reading, was more effective regardless of the reading levels for treatment students compared to control students. In addition, prosody appeared to have a direct connection to reading comprehension. Furthermore, the use of the interactive program provided opportunities for differentiated reading level achievement. Finally, group dynamics highly influenced the early adolescent’s motivation, engagement, participation, and successful outcomes in reading fluency.

While the overall stability of personality across the lifespan has been well-documented, there is also evidence of meaningful personality change. This is particularly true when individuals are going through periods of developmental transition. Over time, one sees incremental changes not just in behavior but in basic personality as well. 1,906 early adolescents were assessed for urgency scores, levels of maladaptive behavior engagement (drinking, smoking, and binge eating), and pubertal status every six months for four years. Zero-Inflated Poisson structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test the model of reciprocal influence between behavior and personality. Across most six-month intervals over the course of the four-year study, urgency predicted increased engagement in the maladaptive behaviors. Strikingly, the reverse was true as well: engagement in behaviors predicted subsequent increases in urgency, which is otherwise a stable personality trait. This study is the first to find reciprocal prediction between engagement in maladaptive, risky behaviors and endorsement of the maladaptive personality trait of urgency during the early adolescent years. One implication of these findings is the apparent presence of a positive feedback loop of risk, in which maladaptive behaviors increase high-risk personality traits, which in turn further increase the likelihood of maladaptive behaviors.

The United States is experiencing a major shift in the population as more students who are considered ethnic minorities enter the school system. These students are at an increased risk for school failure due to language barriers, challenges with experiencing potential discrimination, and debating their identities across two cultural contexts. Although students who are considered ethnic minorities risk many potential stressors, the literature has shown that ethnic identity is a factor that facilitates positive academic adjustment and engagement among this population. Previous literature has also documented mixed findings regarding the relationship between ethnic identity and school outcomes. The current study explored: (a) the associations between ethnic identity, academic efficacy, and achievement goals among early adolescents, (b) to what extent school belonging moderates the association of ethnic identity with academic efficacy and academic achievement goals, and (c) how associations between ethnic identity and outcomes vary by race (Black, Hispanic, Asian, Other, and White students) and gender. The archival dataset analyzed consisted of data collected from 436 participants in the Adolescent Development Longitudinal Study when they were in the spring of their 6th grade year. Findings revealed significant positive relationships between ethnic identity, academic efficacy, and achievement goals with the exception of performance-avoidance goals. School belonging did not moderate these relationships. Further, group differences (gender, race, and school) in the relationships between ethnic identity, academic efficacy, and achievement goals were not detected among the current sample. Implications for educators and researchers are discussed.

Quantitative studies dominate early adolescence research, a field which also lacks an understanding of communication behaviors between early adolescents. This study uses the qualitative methods of participant observation and informal interviews to observe conversations between girls in a junior high lunch room. Friendship characteristics and group socialization are discussed as they emerged from the field data. First, friendship hierarchies (best friend, close friend, and friend) may be adult-imposed structures. Hierarchies are not prominent in the minds of friends as they relate to each other in daily conversation. Second, friendship groups serve to socialize early adolescent girls.

The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 was established to improve student achievement among all public schools. This federal legislation sets a proficiency goal of 100% for all students by the 2013-14 school year. Each state is required to provide parents and others interested in the public schools with information about school, district, and state-level data in a number of areas. The United States Department of Education requires that each state's report card include information pertaining to assessment data, accountability, and teacher quality. The state has an option to include other information such as: school attendance rate, average class size in each grade, and incidences of school violence, drug abuse, student suspensions, and student expulsions. The purpose of this quantitative research study was to determine if there was a difference between grade span configuration with respect to achievement scores of eighth grade students in four eastern states who attended 6-8 public middle schools and those who attended K-8 public schools, as evidenced by their state's 2009-2010 achievement data. The data from the four eastern states was obtained from each state's Department of Education and includes public schools that are configured with a K-8 or 6-8 model. The population in the quantitative study was one thousand one hundred and fifty-eight public schools from Virginia, Maryland, South Carolina, and North Carolina. This included 144 K-8 schools and 1,014 middle schools. The overriding research questions were: (1) what is the difference, if any, in English and mathematics pass rates on the Standards of Learning in Virginia for school with different grade span configurations? , (2) what is the difference, if any, in English and mathematics pass rates on the Maryland School Assessment in Maryland for schools with different grade span configurations? , (3) what is the difference, if any, in English and mathematics pass on the Palmetto-Assessment of State Standards in South Carolina for schools with different grade span configurations?, (4) what is the difference, if any, in English and mathematics pass rates on the ABC's End-of-Course tests in North Carolina for schools with different grade span configurations?, (5) if differences do exist in English and mathematics pass rates for schools with different grade span configurations, are the results consistent in all four states? Eight t-tests were conducted to examine academic performance of eighth grade students in K-8 and 6-8 schools with a pre-determined alpha of .05. The results indicated mixed findings. Results from Virginia and South Carolina revealed that there was no significant difference in the pass rates between K-8 and 6-8 schools in English and mathematics. In North Carolina there was a significant difference in the pass rates, with K-8 schools obtaining a higher pass rate in both English and mathematics. Outcomes from Maryland disclosed that there was a significant difference between K-8 and middle schools, with middle schools obtaining a higher pass rate in both English and mathematics. / Doctor of Education

It is important to understand the development of depression, and how a family component to treatment affects early adolescent girls’ depression given the association between depression and negative future outcomes. A potential vulnerability to depression is the cognitive triad, which encompasses beliefs about the self, world, and future and is shaped by early learning experiences. Research indicates that the vulnerability originates from parent-child relationships and family messages, which are important in the development of youth cognitive styles. Previous research also indicates that family variables are important factors to consider in the treatment of depression. The purpose of the current study was to expand previous research by examining the roles of perceived family messages and the cognitive triad in the development of depression for early adolescent girls. The study also explored whether parent gender differentiated how family messages affect girls’ cognitions and depressive symptoms. The study evaluated how the addition of a parent training component to a school-based, group-administered CBT intervention affected change in the model’s variables in comparison to group-administered CBT intervention alone and a monitoring control condition. Participants included early adolescent girls diagnosed with depression and caregivers in the parental treatment component. Girls were randomly assigned to a CBT, CBT+PT, or minimal contact control condition. Ratings of girls’ perceptions of family messages, cognitions, and depressive symptoms were obtained at pre-treatment and post-treatment. Results from structural equation modeling indicated significant effects from perceived family messages to girls’ cognitions. Further, girls’ cognitions mediated the relation between perceived family messages and girls’ depressive symptoms at post-treatment for participants within the CBT and monitoring conditions. No significant differences were evident between parent gender and perceived messages. Results indicated that the addition of a parent component to the CBT intervention did not significantly differ from the CBT intervention alone in its effects on the variable relations within the model at post-treatment. Supplemental analyses highlighted parent attendance as a significant factor, with larger effects from the family messages on girls’ cognitions appearing when parents attended majority (six or more) of the eight parent training sessions. Implications, limitations, and areas for further research are discussed. / text