abstract: Design problem formulation is believed to influence creativity, yet it has received only modest attention in the research community. Past studies of problem formulation are scarce and often have small sample sizes. The main objective of this research is to understand how problem formulation affects creative outcome. Three research areas are investigated: development of a model which facilitates capturing the differences among designers' problem formulation; representation and implication of those differences; the relation between problem formulation and creativity. This dissertation proposes the Problem Map (P-maps) ontological framework. P-maps represent designers' problem formulation in terms of six groups of entities (requirement, use scenario, function, artifact, behavior, and issue). Entities have hierarchies within each group and links among groups. Variables extracted from P-maps characterize problem formulation. Three experiments were conducted. The first experiment was to study the similarities and differences between novice and expert designers. Results show that experts use more abstraction than novices do and novices are more likely to add entities in a specific order. Experts also discover more issues. The second experiment was to see how problem formulation relates to creativity. Ideation metrics were used to characterize creative outcome. Results include but are not limited to a positive correlation between adding more issues in an unorganized way with quantity and variety, more use scenarios and functions with novelty, more behaviors and conflicts identified with quality, and depth-first exploration with all ideation metrics. Fewer hierarchies in use scenarios lower novelty and fewer links to requirements and issues lower quality of ideas. The third experiment was to see if problem formulation can predict creative outcome. Models based on one problem were used to predict the creativity of another. Predicted scores were compared to assessments of independent judges. Quality and novelty are predicted more accurately than variety, and quantity. Backward elimination improves model fit, though reduces prediction accuracy. P-maps provide a theoretical framework for formalizing, tracing, and quantifying conceptual design strategies. Other potential applications are developing a test of problem formulation skill, tracking students' learning of formulation skills in a course, and reproducing other researchers’ observations about designer thinking. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Mechanical Engineering 2015

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento CientÃfico e TecnolÃgico / Nesta dissertaÃÃo, nosso principal objetivo foi desenvolver uma tÃcnica de resoluÃÃo para um problema na Ãrea de telecomunicaÃÃes. O problema em questÃo à chamado de problema de PonderaÃÃo de Rodadas (PR) e foi inicialmente proposto em [Klasing,Morales,Perennes, 2008]. O contexto do problema envolve uma rede sem fio, onde as comunicaÃÃes sÃo realizadas via ondas de rÃdio e a rede funciona atravÃs de uma operaÃÃo da rede que satisfaz certas restriÃÃes. Inicialmente, explicamos como à formada uma rede de rÃdio e descrevemos a forma de operaÃÃo da rede de rÃdio junto Ãs restriÃÃes usando um modelo matemÃtico. Em seguida, formalizamos o problema PR como um problema de otimizaÃÃo, especificando suas restriÃÃes, correspondente à geraÃÃo do conjunto de possÃveis operaÃÃes da rede, e critÃrio de otimizaÃÃo, referente ao uso dos recursos da rede. Posteriormente, mostramos um estudo preliminar do problema de ColoraÃÃo FracionÃria (CF) e apresentamos uma tÃcnica de resoluÃÃo deste problema atravÃs do uso de uma heurÃstica lagrangeana baseada em uma relaxaÃÃo lagrangeana de uma formulaÃÃo de programaÃÃo inteira do problema. Essa tÃcnica de resoluÃÃo à entÃo adaptada para o problema PR, consistindo na principal contribuiÃÃo de nossa pesquisa. Por fim, mostramos os resultados computacionais e anÃlises das nossas implementaÃÃes para os problemas CF e PR. / In this dissertation, our main objective was to develop a technique for resolution to a problem in the area of telecommunications. The problem in question is called Round Weighting Problem (RWP) and was originally proposed in (KLASING; MORALES; PeRENNES, 2008). The context of the problem involves a wireless network where communications are performed by radio waves and the network operates through a network operation that satises the constraints of the problem. Initially, we explain how a radio network is formed and describe the mode of operation of the radio network with restrictions using a mathematical model. Then, we formalize the RWP as an optimization problem, specifying their restrictions, corresponding to the generation of the set of possible network operations, and optimization criterion, regarding the use of network resources. Subsequently, we show a preliminary study of the Fractional Coloring problem (FC problem) and present a technique to solve this problem through the use of a lagrangian heuristic based on a lagrangian relaxation of an integer programming formulation of the problem. This resolution technique is then adapted to the RWP, consisting in the main contribution of our research. Finally, we show the computational results and analyzes of our implementations for the Fractional Coloring problem and RWP.

By asking “What’s the problem?” this thesis addresses the crucial relationship between how strategic decision-makers formulate organizational problems and how the relevant actors attempt to solve these problems. This thesis holds that the creation of strategy can be conceived of as a decision-making process in which the strategists find, formulate and attempt to solve problems by choosing a set of means to reduce the perceived gap between the current state and the desired state of the organization. The thesis particularly explores and postulates what is refered to as the means-end fallacy in which end-problems are treated as means-problems. In effect the decision-makers take the ends of the organization for granted and only ask “How can we fix it?” instead of critically examining the purpose of the organization by asking “What should we fix and why?” The purpose of this thesis is twofold. First, it is to explore the dysfunctional consequences of the means-end fallacy in organizational decision-making and creation of strategy. Secondly, it is to illuminate the implications of applying the problem-formulation perspective in the creation of organizational strategies. To achieve these purposes the problem-formulation phenomenon is explored in five appended papers. Paper I discusses the paradox of profitability and responsibility and the means-end fallacy in the context of strategic theory and practice. Papers II, III and IV explore the relationship between how a problem is formulated and how different actors attempt to solve it. This is done with a comprehensive case study of the substance-abuse problem and the different organizational strategies that are implemented to resolve it. Paper V offers a concrete discussion of how inappropriate formulations of organizational problems undermine the intended ends, particularly with regard to the paradox of profitability and responsibility. This thesis argues that the strategic decision-makers need both to be more problem-oriented; that they should balance the different dimensions of the problem; and, thus, that they should recognize that decision-making is an art of balance. Moreover, it suggests that the problem-formulation perspective can contribute with an insight into the black box of strategy creation, and that this can be achieved by looking back or rewinding from the organization’s strategy to the initial formulation of the organization’s problems. As a mirror image it suggests that strategic decision-makers can avoid the means-end fallacy by forwarding from an appropriate formulation of the problem to a balanced strategy.

An experiment was conducted investigating the utility of teamwork exercises and problem structure for promoting technological problem solving in a student team context. The teamwork exercises were designed for participants to experience a high level of psychomotor coordination and cooperation with their teammates. The problem structure treatment was designed based on small group research findings on brainstorming, information processing, and problem formulation. First-year college engineering students (N = 294) were randomly assigned to three levels of team size (2, 3, or 4 members) and two treatment conditions: teamwork exercises and problem structure (N = 99 teams). In addition, the study included three non-manipulated, independent variables: team gender, team temperament, and team teamwork orientation. Teams were measured on technological problem solving through two conceptually related technological tasks or engineering design activities: a computer bridge task and a truss model task. The computer bridge score and the number of computer bridge design iterations, both within subjects factors (time), were recorded in pairs over four 30-minute intervals. For the last two intervals with the computer bridge, teams started construction of the truss model task, which created low and high task load conditions for the computer bridge: another within subjects factor. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to analyze time (computer bridge) by factor interactions. No significant time by teamwork exercises or time by problem structure interactions on computer bridge scores were found [F(2.31, 198.46) = 0.10, p = .928; F(2.31, 198.46) = 0.03, p = .984]. There was a significant interaction between the factors of time and team size [F(4.62, 198.46) = 2.75, p = .023]. An ANOVA was conducted with the between subject factors on the truss model task. A significant main effect was found for teamwork exercises [F(1, 86) = 2.84, p = .048, one-tailed], but not for problem structure or team size. Post hoc analyses were conducted for team size on computer bridge and iteration scores over time, as well as teamwork exercises effects for each team size. Findings and their implications were reported, along with suggestions for future research on technological problem solving in a team context. / Ph. D.