Achieving sustainable production is a critical task in today’s globalised world. This is especially the case in the cotton garment industry where globally dispersed suppliers feed rapidly expanding demand across international markets. Practices associated with cotton garment production face numerous sustainability challenges from cotton farming to textile and garment manufacturing. Retailers are under increasing pressure to address these challenges and leading retailers are now actively trying to promote more sustainable production across all stages of production from raw material to final product. While numerous studies have investigated the relationship between retailers and their upper tier suppliers, there is little understanding of how sustainability challenges can be addressed across fragmented production processes. It is this gap that this thesis seeks to fill. Promoting sustainable production from raw materials to the final stages of manufacturing involves influencing practices of a diverse set of businesses responsible for different stages of production. This thesis defines the set of businesses that turn raw materials into final products as an ‘extended supplier network’ (ESN). Drawing on global value chain (GVC) and global production network (GPN) approaches to understanding how production is organised, the core question of this thesis is: To what extent is buyerdriven governance sufficient for promoting sustainable production across fragmented production processes in an ESN? GVC and GPN research provides insight into this issue as it offers a way to conceptualise how lead firms influence their suppliers. The GVC approach highlights the importance of lead buyers. The GPN approach incorporates this argument but further emphasises the importance of spatiality and the roles of a wider set of actors and processes. While both approaches theoretically incorporate all stages of production, garment industry studies using these approaches have tended to focus on relationships between brands and retailers and upper tier suppliers, paying insufficient attention to lower tiers. Considering the case of Indian cotton clothing production for major UK retailers, this study explores retailers’ governance relationships with producers at different points in their ESNs. Producers’ experiences of vertical governance through buyer-seller relationships across all stages of production within an ESN are explored. These producers’ experiences with horizontal governance within distinct local productive systems are also considered. Diverse producers’ locations within the ESN and within local productive systems are found to involve different governance experiences within the same ESN. Across the ESN, vertical governance flows are found to be limited by variation in potential for buyer governance across buyer-seller relationships in the multiple vertical pathways connecting retailers to raw material producers. Alternatively, retailers can connect to producers by making non-sourcing horizontal connections with actors in local productive systems. While dominant methods in retailers’ efforts at governance for sustainability have been vertical, horizontal connections are increasing across the industry. However, despite the emergence of new connections, this research finds that retailers’ influence over lower tier production processes remains limited. Empirically, this thesis provides insight into the complexity of sustainability challenges involved in the production of cotton garments. Conceptually, it shows the nature of diverse governance relationships across an ESN. It also emphasises that effective governance for sustainability cannot be achieved simply through vertical buyerdriven governance. Instead a more nuanced, and more complex, understanding of the interplay between vertical and horizontal is required, particularly considering the role of alliances. This has significant implications for policy, including the public and private governance for sustainability in the global cotton garment industry.

SILVA, Eva Mônica Sarmento da. Abelhas visitantes florais do algodoeiro (gossypium hirsutum) em quixeramobim e quixeré, estado do ceará, e seus efeitos na qualidade da fibra e semente. 2007. 117 f. Tese (doutorado em zootecnia)- Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza-CE, 2007. / Submitted by Elineudson Ribeiro (elineudsonr@gmail.com) on 2016-04-07T19:36:08Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2007_tese_emssilva.pdf: 1364190 bytes, checksum: 9a959bc04ee8253e39756a0780cecae4 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by José Jairo Viana de Sousa (jairo@ufc.br) on 2016-05-25T19:36:41Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2007_tese_emssilva.pdf: 1364190 bytes, checksum: 9a959bc04ee8253e39756a0780cecae4 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-05-25T19:36:41Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2007_tese_emssilva.pdf: 1364190 bytes, checksum: 9a959bc04ee8253e39756a0780cecae4 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2007 / The present work aimed to study the bee species which visit flowers of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), cultivar 187 8H, their respective pollination efficiencies in relation to crop pollination requirements, as well as their implications in cotton ball production, quality of fiber and seeds produced. Data were collected from May to August 2006 in commercial cropping areas in the counties of Quixeramobim and Quixeré, state of Ceará, Brazil. The area in Quixeramobim was small (10,000 m2), fertilized, close to native vegetation and used controlled insecticide applications, while the area in Quixeré was large (240,000 m2 ), non-fertilized, surrounded by other crop areas and submitted to systemic use of insecticide at every eight days. The research was split into four investigations: 1 – diversity and abundance of floral visitors to cotton flowers; 2 – foraging behavior of floral vistors to cotton flowers; 3 - floral biology, pollination requirements of cotton flowers, and pollination efficiency of Apis mellifera, and 4 – effect of Apis mellifera pollination in the physiological quality of cotton fiber and seeds. Floral visitors were observed, counted and captured by means of zig-zag walkings between the cropping lines. Experiments included bagging floral buds and hand pollination to evaluate cotton flowers’ pollination requirements and Apis mellifera pollination efficiency. Seed germination tests were carried out in the Seed Laboratory of the Universidade Federal do Ceará and fiber quality was evaluated in EMBRAPA Algodão, Campina Grande-PB. The experimental design was entirely randomized and the crossed factorial Place x Treatment (2x5). Data were analised using Anova F test submitted to variance analysis and compared a posteriori by the Tukey test or by means of General Linear Models, depending on the nature of data. The following insect species were collected visiting flowers in the experimental sites: Apis mellifera, Brachygastra lecheguana, Polybia ignobilis, Ancyloscelis sp. 1, Ancyloscelis sp. 2, Melissoptila uncicornis, Psaenythia sp. and Anthrenoides sp., the last three species being new occurrences in the state of Ceará. Floral visitors, resources gathered and foraging behavior were similar in both areas. Regarding floral biology, anthesis initiated early in the morning, from 6:00 h onwards, and all flowers were open by 7:00h. Stigmas were receptive from 6:00h to 13:00h, and pollen showed the greatest germinability (75%) after 10 hours of incubation. There were no significant differences (P>0.05) in fruit production among treatments in Quixeramobim and Quixeré. However, significant differences (P<0.05) were found among treatments within and/or between localities in variables such as cotton ball weight, seed weight, fiber weight, and number of seeds per fruit. In general, Quixeré showed lower means than Quixeramobim to all variables investigated. It was concluded that floral visitors’ frequency to cotton flowers was low in Quixeré and Quixeramobim, A. mellifera showed the greatest potential to act as biotic pollinator of cotton flowers due to its large numbers in the areas, but Melissoptila uncicornis Ancyloscelis sp. 1 and Ancyloscelis sp. 2 could become important native pollinators in conditions more favorable to their presence, such as reduced use of insecticides, smaller crop fields, less soil revolving, and more proximity to native vegetation. The cotton plant is a species with an intermediate pollination system, being able of autopollination, however it needs biotic agents and good nutritional conditions to maximize pollination. It was also possible to conclude that natural pollination levels occurring in the areas studied were not sufficient to maximize production and that plants in Quixeré were not in the best nutritional conditions, in opposition to what was observed in Quixeramobim. It was also concluded that A. mellifera bees could be relevant to cotton pollination since they increased the percentage of emergence and the index of plantule emergence velocity in cotton seeds. The intrinsic fiber characteristics were not affected by pollination. / O presente trabalho teve por objetivos estudar as abelhas visitantes do algodoeiro herbáceo (Gossypium hirsutum) cultivar 187 8H, suas respectivas eficiências polinizadoras em relação aos requerimentos de polinização da cultura, bem como seus efeitos na produção de capulhos e qualidade da fibra e das sementes. Os dados foram coletados nos meses de maio de 2006 a fevereiro de 2007, em áreas comerciais dos municípios de Quixeramobim, e Quixeré, sendo a primeira adubada, pequena (10.000 m2), com uso controlado de defensivos agrícolas e próxima à mata nativa, enquanto que a outra não recebeu adubação, era grande (240.000 m2), com aplicação de agrotóxicos a cada oito dias e circundada por outras áreas cultivadas. O estudo foi realizado em quatro etapas: 1 - a diversidade e abundância dos visitantes florais do algodoeiro; 2 – o comportamento de pastejo dos visitantes florais do algodoeiro; 3 - a biologia floral, requerimentos de polinização e eficiência polinizadora de Apis mellifera no algodoeiro e 4 – o efeito da polinização por abelha Apis mellifera na qualidade fisiológica da fibra e sementes de algodão. Os visitantes florais foram acompanhados, observados em seus comportamentos de pastejo, capturados e identificados ao longo do período de florescimento da cultura por meio de caminhadas em zigue-zague entre as fileiras do plantio. Experimentos de ensacamento de botões florais e polinização manual foram realizados para avaliar os requerimentos de polinização da cultura e eficiência da abelha Apis mellifera na polinização do algodoeiro. Testes de germinação das sementes e características intrínsecas da fibra em função do tipo de polinização foram utilizados para avaliar a qualidade de sementes e fibra. As análises foram conduzidas no Laboratório de Semente, da Universidade Federal do Ceará e no Laboratório de Fibra, da Embrapa Algodão, em Campina Grande-PB. Os experimentos foram montados em delineamento inteiramente casualizado e os dados analisados por meio de análise de variância com comparação de médias a posteriori pelo teste de Tukey, ou através da metodologia de Modelos Lineares Generalizados, dependendo da natureza dos dados. Os visitantes florais observados foram: Apis mellifera, Brachygastra lecheguana, Polybia ignobilis, Ancyloscelis sp. 1, Ancyloscelis sp. 2, Melissoptila uncicornis, Psaenythia sp. Anthrenoides sp., sendo as três últimas espécies novas ocorrências para o estado do Ceará. Os visitantes florais, a coleta de alimento e o comportamento dos insetos nas flores do algodoeiro foram semelhantes nos dois municípios estudados. Quanto à biologia floral, a antese aconteceu a partir das 6:00h, sendo que todas as flores estavam abertas às 7:00h. Os estigmas apresentaram-se receptivos das 6:00h às 13:00h e o pólen mostrou maior germinabilidade (75%) após 10 horas de incubação. Não houve diferenças significativas (P>0,05) na produção de frutos entre os tratamentos em Quixeramobim e Quixeré. Porém, foram observadas diferenças significativas (P<0,05) entre os tratamentos dentro e/ou entre localidades, em parâmetros como o peso do capulho, peso da fibra, peso da semente, número de sementes, qualidade da semente e alguns parâmetros de qualidade da fibra. De uma maneira geral, Quixeré apresentou médias menores que Quixeramobim para todos os parâmetros investigados. Concluiu-se que a freqüência dos visitantes florais foi baixa nos plantios de algodão de Quixeré e Quixeramobim, Apis mellifera possui o maior potencial para atuar como polinizador biótico do algodoeiro devido seu grande número nas áreas, mas Melissoptila uncicornis, Ancyloscelis sp. 1 e Ancyloscelis sp. 2 poderiam tornar-se polinizadores nativos importantes em situações mais favoráveis à sua presença, como um menor uso de defensivos agrícolas, áreas de plantio menores, menos revolvimento do solo e maior proximidade à mata nativa. O algodoeiro é uma planta de polinização intermediária, podendo se autopolinizar, porém necessita de agentes bióticos e um bom estado nutricional para maximizar a polinização. Pode-se concluir também que o nível de polinização natural nas áreas foi insuficiente para maximizar a produção e que as plantas de Quixeré não estavam adequadamente nutridas, ao contrário das de Quixeramobim. Também se concluiu que as abelhas A. mellifera podem ser importantes na polinização do algodoeiro, já que levaram à porcentuais de emergência e índice de velocidade de emergência de plântulas superiores. As características intrínsecas da fibra não foram influenciadas pelos tipos de polinização.