This study explores the nature and definition of a profession for the purpose of determining measurable criteria upon which the degree of professionalization of an occupation can be measured. Two criteria were persistent in the literature: the possession of unique skills and knowledge and an overriding service orientation. The occupation of Higher Education was then judged with these criteria. The service orientation was well-acknowledged in the literature as an occupational activity of Higher Education. In order to determine if Higher Education possesses unique knowledge and skills, a curriculum analysis was undertaken by using student transcripts, program handbooks, and university catalogs. The results of this study include confirmation of the existence of a core of courses which may be thought to define the unique skills and knowledge of Higher Education. The content of this core was compared with results of other studies (Dressel and Mayhew 1974, Basil 1980). The last phase of this study compared Higher Education curricular characteristics to those of other occupations, including the mature professions, for the purpose of describing the status of the professionalization of Higher Education. The findings of this study describe Higher Education as being more professionalized in terms of characteristics of the curriculum than the emerging professions of business and library science but less so than law and medicine. Additionally, there is evidence that over the ten-year time frame of the study, Higher Education has become more professionalized in terms of the maturity of its professions education.

In 2004 unexplained pedagogical barriers were limiting Learning Object (LO) development. Few reference points existed preventing the formation of specific pedagogical questions as to the nature of these barriers - hence this PhD's rationale. This thesis 'uncovers' the most effective pedagogical and evaluation/assessment* approaches for LO design in Medical Education, and the underlying principles within these approaches - i.e. what is effective, and why. To determine why certain approaches are effective observation/interview/usability studies were performed using grounded theory to generate hypotheses (1A Participants n=57). To verify 1A findings, this process was replicated using different sites/samples in Phase 2(Eastern/Midlands, n=72). To determine what was most effective, systematic reviews using a purpose-built design were undertaken with additional questions on pedagogy and evaluation/assessment• components (1B Studies n=222). Approaches identified as 'effective' according to statistics, SCIE and my own rigor scoring systems were tested blind in two locations (Eastern/Midlands) with different samples under a null hypothesis (i.e. 'Each approach will score no differently to any other', Phase 2 participants n=72). This was further developed by replicating this process via mobile delivery. Section 1A generated over a hundred hypotheses. In Section 1B, two existing approaches scored consistently high. Phase 2 produced the same hypotheses/approaches when submitted to the blinded observation/interview/usability process thus tight theme linkage resulted in rigorous theory and empirical data. The two top-performing 1B approaches scored high resulting in the possible existence of generic principles. When replicating 1A, 1B and Phase 2 for mobile delivery, the existence of generic principles was verified and a possible model for practice formed. In summary, this thesis underlines the importance of learner input and how learners' perceptions form an essential part of the LO learning process. It discovers original generic principles for both desktop and mobile formats, highlights how branch and loop learning systems are necessary for learner customisation, and provides new knowledge verifying Wiley's molecular LO analogy. *In this thesis many types of evaluation approaches are tested. These are called 'evaluation approaches' by the authors that created them. However, in some disciplines the term 'evaluation' is viewed as being interchangeable with the term 'assessment'. For this reason explanatory footnotes will be given throughout where necessary.

The purpose of this exploratory study was to discover the reasons that female Surface Warfare Officers (SWO) leave the Surface Warfare Officer Community and to identify paths that might encourage them to stay. Seven focus groups and nine interviews were used to gather qualitative data from three groups: 1) SWOs who had expressed intentions to leave the SWO community; 2) officers who had laterally transferred to another Navy community; and 3) individuals who had separated from the Navy. Altogether, 49 individuals participated in the study; 23 women and 26 men. Men were included to examine gender similarities and differences. Based on responses from all participants, six major themes emerged to explain why both male and female officers may leave the community: 1) inconsistent leadership; 2) negative aspects of the culture; 3) lack of passion; 4) inability to achieve work/life balance; 5) excessive work-hours; and 6) the mundane nature of some tasks. Only three themes emerged that were different for the women: 1) inflexibility of career for family planning; 2) lack of positive senior role models; and 3) a perception of discrimination, sexual harassment, and lack of respect for women. It appears that the Navy may need to attack the retention problem on a number of fronts if it wishes to improve the retention rate for women. Continuation pay, which is currently a primary lever for increasing retention, was not viewed favorably as a means for getting male or female officers to stay in the community. The thesis concludes with recommendations for further research.

Background: The Quality Outcomes Framework (QOF) was introduced in April 2004. Research to date has primarily looked at its effects on process and surrogate outcomes measured in primary care rather than evidence linked hospital admissions. None has used individual linked data. This study utilises data linkages between the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD) and Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) datasets to determine the impact of QOF targets on hospital admissions at the individual patient level. Methods: CHD QOF targets and linked hospital admissions were selected according to the strength of their evidence base and ease of extraction. Outcomes were ICD10 codes for Ischaemic Heart Disease (IHD). These formed the primary diagnosis over a hospitalisation and depending on the severity of the code, were additionally an emergency admission. Econometric analysis was then undertaken with IHD admissions as the dependent variable and evidence based CHD QOF targets as explanatory variables. Results: Evidence based CHD QOF targets were found to significantly reduce outcomes after a one year lag. Of the co-morbidities included, only Heart Failure was consistently found to significantly increase outcomes in all analyses. Higher deprivation, and having a study outcome prior to CHD diagnosis, significantly increased outcomes. Being treated in a higher performing practice on the selected targets, in itself, significantly reduced outcomes. Conclusion: This study has demonstrated at the individual level that evidence linked targets in the QOF are effective in reducing linked hospital admissions with a lag. It is the first study to take advantage of CPRD and HES linkages to do so. This has been demonstrated in a ‘real’ world setting, outside of controlled clinical settings, and in so doing addressed deficiencies identified in the existing research. This research has shown that large administrative datasets can support such research and opened up a number of possibilities for future research.

Background Effective disease diagnosis and treatment relies on a conceptual knowledge base that is both expansive and well-networked. The problem-based learning (PBL) curriculum is considered as being well-suited to creating this kind of knowledge. The facilitator plays a crucial role in establishing and maintaining the knowledge construction discourse as students interact to resolve case problems. An exploration of tutorial talk could provide opportunities to understand and improve verbal interactions of this nature. Many of the previous studies have only analysed a small amount of tutorial talks owing to methodological constraints, and the existing literature on the subject matter only scarcely touches upon the utility of lexicogrammatical methods for the development of an understanding of knowledge construction in medical PBL tutorials. In this research, a blend of corpus linguistics methodology and a lexicogrammatical approach was employed for the analysis of talk in 8 PBL tutorial groups in order to deepen our understanding of how students jointly construct knowledge and how the facilitator guides the process. Aims In this study, a corpus of 2,37,820 comprising eight PBL students’ and facilitators’ tutorial talk was created to achieve the following aims: I. To use the students’ subcorpus to answer the research question (1) by measuring the frequencies and describing the functions of the frequently occurring (1) referring expression indicators; (2) shared knowledge indicators; (3) knowledge extension indicators; and (4) knowledge enhancement indicators. II. To use the facilitators’ subcorpus to answer the research question (2) by measuring the frequencies and describing the functions of the commonly occurring (1) facilitators’ questions; (2) facilitators’ directive expression indicators; and (3) facilitators’ probability indicators. III: To make recommendations based on the results of the study. Methodology Wmatrix 3 was used to retrieve defined linguistic indicators relating to the research questions. A quantitative analysis of the indicators was performed through word frequency computation and a keyword-in-context analysis. Descriptive statistics with SPSS version 22 was used to computer frequency profile of the indicator functions, and the Log likelihood calculator was used to determine the variation of the functions across the eight PBL groups. Extracts from the dataset were provided to illustrate the indicators’ functions. I. Results of Students’ talk analysis The subcorpus contained 2,10,077 words. The most frequent contents of the students’ talk comprised biomedical science and cause-effect vocabularies. 1. Analysis of referring indicators There were 2,325 referring expression indicators. They were used to mark verbal expressions, amounting to 44.04%; mental expressions, amounting to 42.24%; and learning situation and materials, amounting to 13.72%. The referring expressions were used for providing peer commendation, sharing knowledge, fostering social and cognitive regulation, and for constructing knowledge; the mental referring expressions were used to generate hypotheses, achieve mutual understanding, and define group tasks; and learning referring expressions were used to share learning resources, explain concepts, as well as guide discussions and resolve conflicts. 2. Analysis of shared knowledge indicators There were 3,437 shared knowledge expression indicators, which are the following: affirmation (73%), negation (17%), and non-lexical content (10%). Affirmative indicators were mostly used for integration-oriented knowledge sharing (42.31%); negation affirmation expressions were mostly used for conflict-oriented knowledge sharing (70%); and non-content indicators were mainly used for idea and information orientation. Shared knowledge was commonly achieved among group members through information addition, repetition and rephrasing, paraphrasing, causal and noncausal elaboration, correction of ideas and information recollection, and by establishing orientation to ideas and information from the group members. 3. Analysis of knowledge extension indicators There were 6,520 retrieved knowledge extension indicators, which comprised the following: additive 4,227 (63.54%), alternative 1,001 (15.05%), and adversative 1,424 (21.41%). Adversative indicators were more frequently used for knowledge construction compared to additive (33% versus 16%; LL 32.58, p < 0.01) and alternative indicators (33% versus 13%; LL 95.74, p < 0.01). The students commonly used additive indicators for simple, temporal, causal-conditional, elaborate, contrastive, and indefinite additions. Alternative indicators were commonly used for offering alternative questions and ideas while adversative indicators were frequently used to link elaborative, contrastive, concessional, and causal-conditional clauses. 4. Analysis of knowledge enhancement indicators A total of 6,402 indicators were retrieved. The most frequent among the retrieved 6,402 indicators were because, so, as, when, and that. Between 16.94% and 29.24% of the indicators were used for knowledge co-construction. The most frequent indicators’ functions were conditional, extension, report, consequence, inference, and feature specification. The reporting functions regularly concerned biomedical theory, previous peer knowledge, research evidence, professional opinion, as well as cognitive tools and criticism; extension function related to biomedical knowledge; and feature specification functions involved biomedical attributes and explanation; the conditional functions were frequently used to state logical conditions for disease presence, manifestation, and treatments; the inferential functions were more consistently used to link biomedical deductions to their premise; and the consequential functions commonly related to the linking of physiological mechanism and organ function to their respective consequences. II: Results of facilitators’ talk analysis The subcorpus contained 27,743 words. The most frequent content comprised biomedical science and cause-effect vocabularies. 1. Facilitators’ questions There were 35 types of question indicators. The facilitators asked 0.78 lower-order questions per 100 tokens, and 0.25 higher-order questions problem-based per 100 tokens. The questions functioned to stimulate elaboration, elicit information, prompt students, and the offering of suggestions. 2. Analysis of directive expressions ‘Should’, ‘have to’, ‘need’, ‘supposed’, ‘would’, and ‘can’ directive expression indicators were found to be most frequent. They were used to mark expectation, indirect question, and they were commonly used to preface requirement, exhortation, and intention. The indicators functioned frequently to facilitate group process (53.45%) and direct learning (42.00%). 3. Analysis of probability expression indicators There were of 27 types, out of which 9 were frequently occurring. The probability expression indicators were frequently used to mark possibility, prediction, hedging, and logical deductions. The indicators functioned to preface content information given to the students, to mark process facilitation remarks, and to mark facilitators’ questions. Discussion and conclusion The study demonstrated the feasibility of using corpus linguistics to study medical students’ knowledge construction talk; provided evidence of knowledge construction through prior knowledge mobilisation, knowledge extension, and enhancement; and signified the attainment of shared knowledge. The facilitators frequently asked lower-order questions; the directive expressions indicators were used to mark content-related and learning behaviour expectations and requirements; and the probability expression indicators were frequently used to mark content information given to the students. This study shows that students construct knowledge in their PBL tutorials. The pedagogic issues that emerged from the study relates to subversion of the PBL facilitation principles. A wholistic understanding of the factors that affect the behaviours of the facilitators in the classroom is important to resolve this problem. This may involve tutor pedagogic education and recalibration of administrative policies and institutional culture to provide an enabling environment for PBL instructional approach.

This thesis explores and tests an integrated, social cognitive approach to understanding leadership and developing leaders within healthcare organisations in the United Kingdom. Two studies were implemented; the first involved an assessment of the personal and environmental components of leaders and their followers, as well as the self-reported and follower-rated behaviour of leaders in eight National Health Service (NHS) organisations. The second study involved working with 15 organisations across the NHS to implement and evaluate a scenario-based training intervention which promotes a social cognitive perspective of leadership and draws on the principles of adult learning. The impact of this intervention was examined using a longitudinal design and factors influencing the transfer of leader self-efficacy were explored. For both studies, the suitability of measures was assessed and validated using confirmatory factor analysis. Specific analytic techniques were used within each study based on the study objectives. In study I, mediation analyses were conducted using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) to explore the interaction between personal, environmental and behavioural components within leaders, as well as exploring how these components interact in the relationship between the leader and their followers. The results revealed a significant mediational role of two key aspects of the perceived environment (control and social resources) in the relationship between leaders’ behaviour and followers’ personal components and attitudes towards work. The mediational role of leader behaviour in the relationship between leaders’ personal components and their perceived environment was not supported. Study II used a Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) with a repeated measures design to explore the impact of training over time on leaders’ awareness of what constitutes ‘supportive’ leadership behaviour and their self-efficacy judgements. Data was collected immediately prior to attendance at the training intervention, immediately after training and 6 months post-training. The results revealed a significant increase in leaders’ self-efficacy post-training in relation to four common situations that leaders within healthcare settings face. The longitudinal analysis also showed that leaders’ self-efficacy beliefs were maintained 6 months post-training. In addition, an assessment of leaders’ behavioural awareness indicated that democratic leadership behaviours and behaviours relating to greater self/other awareness were seen to be significantly more supportive immediately after training compared to pre-training (baseline) levels. There were no significant differences in leaders’ awareness of the supportiveness of performance and target-driven behaviours immediately after the training. However, the longitudinal analysis revealed that leaders’ increased awareness of the supportiveness of these behaviours was not sustained over time. Instead, these behaviours were seen to be significantly less supportive 6 months after training compared to both the immediate post-training and pre-training levels of awareness. Finally, a Hierarchical Multiple Linear Regression (HMLR) analysis revealed that the transfer of leaders’ self-efficacy beliefs (as assessed 6 months post-training) was significantly predicted by leaders’ pre-training (baseline) and post-training self-efficacy levels, as well as leaders’ age. Contrary to what was expected, application of their learning, post-training support from colleagues and supervisors and the interaction between support and the application of learning did not predict leaders’ self-efficacy 6 months after training. This thesis concludes by discussing the implications for leadership research and leadership training within healthcare organisations.

The pharmacy profession is formed of different sectors. The two main ones are community and hospital pharmacists. Sociologists have examined if community pharmacists are a profession or not as a result of their marginalised role in healthcare and links with commerce. Few sociological studies have included hospital pharmacists. This study engaged with the theories from the sociology of the professions such as the neo-Weberian social closure perspective, professions as an interrelated system and Foucault’s concept of knowledge and power to explore the nature of pharmacy practice in healthcare in England, United Kingdom. Its purpose was to reveal new insights into pharmacists’ perceptions of the nature of pharmacy practice linking this to their status in society. This qualitative collective case study consisted of four cases studies. Each case study included five pharmacists from community pharmacy, acute hospital, mental health or community health services, respectively. A total of twenty pharmacists were included. Only pharmacists registered for 5 years or more, who had worked in the relevant healthcare setting for at least 2 years and provided written consent were entered. Data were obtained from one in-depth individual semi-structured interview using a guide covering how they viewed their practice, contributions made to healthcare, their future and how others viewed pharmacists. Each pharmacist was asked to complete a diary for 5 days to include any positive contributions or frustrations experienced. The data for each case were analysed using inductive thematic analysis followed by a cross-case analysis. Five themes were identified; (i) the hidden healthcare profession, (ii) important relationships, (iii) pharmaceutical surveillance, (iv) re-professionalisation strategies and (v) two different professions. The core function defining the pharmacy profession is pharmaceutical surveillance, shifting the sociological understanding of pharmacists’ practice away from dispensing. There is an internal split between community pharmacists and pharmacists in other healthcare settings due to differences in practice, re-professionalisation strategies and relationships with doctors including lacking ideological professional solidarity. Pharmacists are not recognised as healthcare professionals by the public but as ‘typical community pharmacists’ with an image as shopkeepers. Pharmacists interpret professionalism as a controlling rather than an enabling ideology. The status of pharmacists in society today remains unclear.

Maintaining asymmetric balances of intra- and extra-cellular ion concentrations is essential for the healthy and regular functioning of a cell as the presence of specific ionic gradients are responsible for a number of cellular and physiological processes. In order to establish and maintain these ionic gradients, ion channels provide one mechanism of controlled transport of physiological ions such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+) and chloride (Cl-) into and out of the cell. Natural ion channels are large and very complex proteins that are able to rapidly transport ions across the cell‟s bilayer membrane with high selectivity. In order to understand which structural characteristics are required for effective and selective ion transport, a range of macrocyclic compounds based on calix[4]arenes, oxacalix[3]arenes, pillar[5]arenes and diaza-18-crown-6 was synthesised as models for channel-forming biomolecules. Through synthetic modifications and comparisons with their monomeric equivalents, it was possible to determine relationships between their structures and their activities. Polyether-based substituents, including an extended polyether, which incorporated a trans-but-2-ene linker, were attached in order to produce membrane-spanning molecules. The key elements investigated were the effect of the macrocycles compared to their monomeric equivalents, the effect of macrocyclic cavity size on ion selectivity, the effect on ion conductance observed between a rigid macrocycle compared with a flexible macrocycle and the impact of altering polyether chain length and functionality on ion conductance and selectivity. The compounds‟ ion transport abilities were assessed on artificial planar lipid bilayers and their antimicrobial activities determined by a variation of the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion test on the common pathogens: E. coli, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa and S. pyogenes. Planar lipid bilayer results demonstrated that a predetermined structure, the length of the polyether substituent and the fit between the size of the macrocycle to the cation were important for transmembrane ion conduction; whereas the monomeric analogues formed unregulated sized pores leading to irregular to no activity and general non-selectivity. The rigid macrocycle compared to the flexible macrocycle demonstrated key differences in conduction where it is postulated that the flexible macrocycle conducted ionophorically. Antimicrobial tests revealed that the monomeric derivatives were significantly more potent towards bacteria than their macrocyclic equivalents, presumably due to the production of surfactant-like activity whilst the macrocyclic analogues displayed limited aqueous solubility.

Thesis (Ph.D.)--Columbia University, 1993. / Includes bibliographical references.

The fact that African Americans are under represented in the natural resource professions is well known and commonly acknowledged. Terms such as conspicuously absent, manifest imbalance and zero representation have all been used to describe the current status of African American natural resource professionals. The data suggests that in the past 20 years, the numbers have been as low as two-tenths of one percent nationwide. There is no clear understanding as to why there are so few African Americans in this field, moreover, there is a shortage of practical suggestions for improving the situation in the future. It was the intent of this study to provide the critical and useful information needed to understand the inhibitions, biases and barriers that are related to the underrepresentation of African Americans in this field. In order to accomplish the goals and objectives of this research, 10 oral history interviews were conducted and a mail out survey was designed. The survey was mailed to 80 natural resource professionals nationwide. A total of 61 usable replies (76%) were received and included in the study. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the individual questions and the chi square test was used to test four alternative hypotheses. The level of significance was set at .05. The findings in this study point to several critical factors that contribute to the underrepresentation of African American in natural resource professions. These findings include: systematic racism, feelings of isolation, too few mentors and role models (regardless of ethnicity) and lack of cultural awareness in the workplace. In order for the underrepresentation to be corrected these factors must be made known and addressed. Only after a clear understanding of the problem is represented can long term solutions be considered. The information presented here will be beneficial to the entire natural resource community and its endeavor to increase career options for under represented minorities in the coming years. / Graduation date: 1994