A habenula lateral (LHb) inibe neurônios dopaminérgicos no mesencéfalo através de um nodo GABAérgico no tegmento mesopontino, o núcleo tegmental rostromedial (RMTg). Ambos a LHb e o RMTg também projetam para o núcleo dorsal da rafe (DR). A organização das projeções da LHb e do RMTg para o DR foi investigada através de injeções de um traçador anterógrado na LHb ou no RMTg e confirmada com injeções de traçadores retrógrados. Para identificar o fenótipo neuroquímico das projeções RMTg-DR, combinamos a hibridização in situ para mRNA de GAD67 com a detecção imunoistoquímica de traçadores retrógrados injetados no DR. Caracterizamos as subdivisões-alvo das projeções RMTg-DR através de dupla-imunofluorescência para o traçador anterógrado injetado no RMTg e serotonina ou o transportador vesicular de glutamato do tipo 3. Detectamos uma projeção focal direta da divisão medial da LHb para a parte caudal do DR. Em contraste, projeções GABAérgicas robustas do RMTg foram direcionadas para uma subdivisão central do DR enriquecida em neurônios presumidamente glutamatérgicos. / The lateral habenula (LHb) inhibits mesencephalic dopamine neurons through a mesopontine GABAergic node, the rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg). Both LHb and RMTg also project to the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR). The organization of LHb and RMTg projections to the DR was investigated using anterograde tracer injections into the LHb or RMTg and confirmed with retrograde tracer injections. To identify the neurochemical phenotype of RMTg-DR projections, we associated in situ hybridization for GAD67 mRNA with immunohistochemical detection of retrograde tracers deposited in the DR. DR target regions of RMTg projections were characterized using double-imunofluorescence techniques for the anterograde tracer deposited into the RMTg and either serotonin or the type 3 vesicular glutamate transporter. We detected a focal direct projection from the medial LHb division to the caudal DR. In contrast the RMTg emits robust GABAergic projections to a central DR subdivision rich in presumptive glutamatergic neurons.

A habenula lateral (LHb) inibe neurônios dopaminérgicos no mesencéfalo através de um nodo GABAérgico no tegmento mesopontino, o núcleo tegmental rostromedial (RMTg). Ambos a LHb e o RMTg também projetam para o núcleo dorsal da rafe (DR). A organização das projeções da LHb e do RMTg para o DR foi investigada através de injeções de um traçador anterógrado na LHb ou no RMTg e confirmada com injeções de traçadores retrógrados. Para identificar o fenótipo neuroquímico das projeções RMTg-DR, combinamos a hibridização in situ para mRNA de GAD67 com a detecção imunoistoquímica de traçadores retrógrados injetados no DR. Caracterizamos as subdivisões-alvo das projeções RMTg-DR através de dupla-imunofluorescência para o traçador anterógrado injetado no RMTg e serotonina ou o transportador vesicular de glutamato do tipo 3. Detectamos uma projeção focal direta da divisão medial da LHb para a parte caudal do DR. Em contraste, projeções GABAérgicas robustas do RMTg foram direcionadas para uma subdivisão central do DR enriquecida em neurônios presumidamente glutamatérgicos. / The lateral habenula (LHb) inhibits mesencephalic dopamine neurons through a mesopontine GABAergic node, the rostromedial tegmental nucleus (RMTg). Both LHb and RMTg also project to the dorsal raphe nucleus (DR). The organization of LHb and RMTg projections to the DR was investigated using anterograde tracer injections into the LHb or RMTg and confirmed with retrograde tracer injections. To identify the neurochemical phenotype of RMTg-DR projections, we associated in situ hybridization for GAD67 mRNA with immunohistochemical detection of retrograde tracers deposited in the DR. DR target regions of RMTg projections were characterized using double-imunofluorescence techniques for the anterograde tracer deposited into the RMTg and either serotonin or the type 3 vesicular glutamate transporter. We detected a focal direct projection from the medial LHb division to the caudal DR. In contrast the RMTg emits robust GABAergic projections to a central DR subdivision rich in presumptive glutamatergic neurons.

The hypothalamus is a subcortical brain region whose limits and constituent nuclei lack consensus. The hypothalamus has been linked to emotion and different states of stress, providing critical feedback about the internal environment to the prefrontal cortex, a region known for executive function within the cortex of humans. An understanding of the developmental origin of the hypothalamus can provide a basis for defining which limits and nuclei are ontologically hypothalamic, and which are not, as well as a framework for understanding its connectional relationship with other brain regions. The Prosomeric Model (Rubenstein et al. 1994; Puelles and Rubenstein 2003; Nieuwenhuys and Puelles 2016; Puelles 2018) explains the embryological development of the central nervous system (CNS) shared by all vertebrates as a Bauplan. As a primary event, the early neural plate is patterned by intersecting longitudinal plates and transverse segments, forming a mosaic of progenitor units. The hypothalamus is specified by three prosomeres [hp1, hp2, and the acroterminal domain (At)] of the secondary prosencephalon with corresponding alar and basal plate parts, which develop apart from the diencephalon. Mounting evidence suggests that progenitor units within alar plate and basal plate parts of hp1 and hp2 give rise to distinct hypothalamic nuclei, which preserve their relative invariant positioning (topology) in the adult brain. Nonetheless, the principles of the Prosomeric Model have not been applied to the hypothalamus of adult primates. The Structural Model (Barbas 1986; Barbas and Rempel-Clower 1997) highlights the variation of laminar structure in the grey matter of the prefrontal cortex as a basis for predicting specific cortico-cortical connections. The areas of the prefrontal cortex vary along a spectrum by number of layers, laminar definition, and cellularity of those layers. The systematic laminar patterns of different areas of the prefrontal cortex seem to be associated with differential rates of development or maturation. A topographical analysis of bidirectional projections between the prefrontal cortex and the hypothalamus was previously applied using the Structural Model (Rempel-Clower and Barbas 1998). The authors found the prefrontal cortex has highly specific projections to the hypothalamus, originating mostly from limbic orbital and medial prefrontal areas, which have lower laminar definition than other prefrontal areas. In addition, the hypothalamus has relatively specific patterns of projection to the prefrontal cortex. We previously lacked an organizing principle to examine the specific pattern of connections between the hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex in adult rhesus monkey. In the present study, hypothalamic nuclei in the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta) were parcellated using classic architectonic boundaries and stains. The topological relations of hypothalamic nuclei and adjacent hypothalamic landmarks were then analyzed with homology across rodent and primate species to trace the origin of adult hypothalamic nuclei to the alar or basal plate components of hp1 and hp2. A novel atlas of the hypothalamus of the adult rhesus monkey was generated with developmental ontologies for each hypothalamic nucleus. This atlas was then applied to a topological analysis of the strength and pattern of connections between the hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex in the adult rhesus monkey. The result is a systematic reinterpretation of the adult hypothalamus of the rhesus monkey whose prosomeric ontology was used to study connections and neuraxial pathways linking the hypothalamus and prefrontal cortex. The convergence of the Prosomeric and Structural Models provides a framework through development to explain the structural patterns found in the adult primate cortex and hypothalamus, and the likely consequences of their disruption.

L'holoprosencéphalie (HPE) est une maladie rare due à une anomalie du développement précoce du prosencéphale. Les gènes impliqués appartiennent à des voies de signalisation cruciales pour le développement embryonnaire telles que les Nodal, Shh et Fgf. Des mutations de ces gènes n'expliquent que 30% des cas d'HPE. Différentes stratégies ont été mises en œuvre pour déterminer de nouveaux gènes responsables de l'HPE. Récemment, des délétions du gène DLL1, un ligand du récepteur Notch ont été identifiées chez des patients HPE. L'objectif de mon travail de thèse était de tester l'hypothèse d'un rôle de la voie Notch au cours du développement précoce du prosencéphale. Dans ce but, une inhibition de la voie Notch a été réalisée en utilisant une culture ex ovo d'embryon de poulet. Grâce à cela, j'ai pu identifier une activité de la voie Notch au niveau de l'hypothalamus présomptif, une structure ventrale du cerveau antérieur. Une approche transcriptomique a ensuite permis d'identifier les dérégulations survenant lors de l'inhibition pharmacologique de la voie Notch. Les expressions des cibles trancriptionnelles de la voie Notch telles que Hes5, Hey1, Ascl1 ou Nhlh1 m'ont permis de suggérer un modèle d'action par inhibition latérale lors de la neurogénèse de l'hypothalamus en développement. Les données transcriptomiques générées m'ont permis d'identifier de nouveaux gènes marqueurs de l'hypothalamus dont l'expression est sous l'influence de la voie Notch. Nos résultats suggèrent que ces gènes appartiennent à une boucle de régulation comprenant la voie Notch et des facteurs de neurogénèse tels que les gènes proneuraux. Mon travail a également permis de montrer que l'expression du gène majeur de l'HPE, le gène Shh, requérait une activité de la voie Notch précisément au niveau de l'hypothalamus. En conclusion, mes résultats montrent que la voie Notch contribue au développement précoce du cerveau. Ce constat ajoute un autre niveau de complexité à l'apparition de l'HPE et apporte de nouveaux arguments en faveur d'un modèle « multi-hit » pour cette pathologie. / Holoprosencephaly (HPE) is a rare disease corresponding to a failure of early prosencephalon development. Genes involved in HPE, belong to crucial signalling pathways for embryonic development as Nodal, Shh and Fgf. Mutations in these genes could explain only 30% of HPE cases. Different strategies were used to identify new genes in HPE. Recently, deletions of DLL1, a ligand of Notch receptor, have been identified in HPE patients. The aim of my thesis was to test hypothesis that Notch pathway has a role during the early prosencephalon development. First, I performed a pharmacological inhibition of Notch pathway in embryos that were cultured ex ovo. Thus, I could identify Notch activity at the level of primordium hypothalamus, a ventral structure of prosencephalon. Then, transcriptomic analyses were performed to identify deregulations occurring during Notch inhibition. Expressions of well known transcriptional targets of Notch pathway, Hes5, Hey1, Ascl1 and Nhlh1, indicated that Notch pathway might act by lateral inhibition in the neurogenesis of developing hypothalamus. From transcriptomic data, we identified novel markers of developing hypothalamus that will be regulated by Notch pathway. Our results suggest that these novel genes could be involved in the regulatory loop associating with Notch pathway and proneural genes. Then, I demonstrated that Notch activity is required to maintain Shh expression, a major gene involved in HPE, particularly in the hypothalamus. To conclude, adding the Notch pathway in the signalling pathway network involved in prosencephalon development, we provide other complexity level in the HPE appearance. Thus, these results support the hypothesis of a « multi-hit » model of HPE.