This paper introduces a dynamic model to illustrate how the self, the work, and the environment interactively influence the experience of work meaningfulness during the employment period. While individuals might enter an organization with intent to improve or protect others¡¦ well-being, their perceived degree of work meaningfulness might be strengthened or weakened within jobs. Other factors from their work and the environment could come into play. Specifically, the proposed model presents how the interplay between prosocial motivation, perceived task significance, and perceived external prestige of an organization affect the experienced meaningfulness of work jointly. This paper tests the model by surveying employees from the high-tech sector and the police sector using the questionnaire method. The results show that individuals who have prosocial motivation indeed experience a sense of work meaningfulness initially. Even when individuals are prosocially motivated, the perceived external prestige of their organizations positively affects their experience in meaningfulness of work. Furthermore, the perceived level of task significance of one¡¦s work overpowers the existing prosocial motivation when it comes to altering the perception of work meaningfulness. The findings indicate that factors from different dimensions could alter the experienced meaningfulness of work together, and the relation between prosocial motivation and work meaningfulness is dynamic.

In the past few years we have seen the near collapse of the world financial system, and we still have yet to find solutions for world poverty or the food crisis. People have started looking for new solutions in order to solve these problems and are considering new employment options besides the traditional for-profit business sector. Employees are increasingly looking for work in organizations that have a more sustainable approach to business. One organization type that fits these criteria is a social business. Most of the research in social entrepreneurship and social businesses, however, has concentrated on the social entrepreneur and the entrepreneurial process so far. Only few studies have explored the employee side. Similarly, research on perceived employee motivation has mainly concentrated on the traditional for-profit businesses and on non-profit organizations. Although employee motivation is considered as crucial to the success of any business, perceived employee motivation in established social businesses has scarcely been researched yet. The purpose of this thesis is to understand why people choose to work in a social business, and what motivates them to work there. This research was conducted as a single case study following Stake (1995). It was carried out in the Helsinki Metropolitan Area Reuse Centre Ltd in Finland. In order to achieve our goal, we have found it helpful to combine relevant motivation theories such as intrinsic motivation, task significance, prosocial motivation, value congruence, and meaningfulness, with current social business theories. As a result of our research, we have developed a model that elaborates how employees make their decision on employment and what influences their perceived motivation. Our findings suggest that both, the distinct business model and the mission of a social business have a great impact on people’s choice of employment. Moreover, the company values, which are partly derived from the mission of a social business, also influence prospective employees’ choice of employment. In addition, the employees’ educational background impacts their choice as their values reflect their education. They are also looking for such work, whose content fits their education. In our study we have tried to point out that perceived employee motivation in a social business is also strongly influenced by value congruence. Moreover, the perceived meaningfulness that derives from the social business’ mission has an impact on the perceived employee motivation. The employees feel that their work is positively affecting people, society, and the environment, which results in task significance and prosocial motivation. Finally, the flexibility of the work, the ability to influence the work content, and the work atmosphere, are also shown to exercise a great influence on perceived employee motivation.

General tax officers are important assets of government organization. Tax officers provide frontline service for people, therefore, their service quality and work performance have an influence on government image. The purpose of this study is to explore the relation between tax officers¡¦ perceived organizational support (POS) and organization citizenship behavior (OCB). Furthermore, we want to realize whether tax officers¡¦ voluntary workers motivations (VWM) have mediation between POS and OCB. In this study, expectations through literature review and empirical study to explore the POS,VWM , and OCB on the view of the perspective taking with prosocial motivation, providing suggestions to the tax authorities and the relevant organization. This study is the case of Revenue Service East and West District Office, Kaohsiung City. There are 481 valid questionnaires, including directors and staff. By means of reliability, validity, factor analysis, descriptive statistics, correlate analysis, we use hierarchical regression to realize research variables and verify hypothesis. The main conclusions of this study are as below: 1.Tax officers are able to develop highly OCB. There are no significant difference in staff cognition themselves as well as in directors¡¦ cognition to staff. 2. Tax officers¡¦ lower POS results in lower in-Role Behavior. 3. There is a certain difference in correlation between VWM and OCB. 4. Tax officers¡¦ attitude, cognition and behavior towards their work will produce significant change after participating in voluntary activities. According to the conclusion of this research, we propose suggestions to relative organizations as a reference.

Why do people work in the voluntary sector? Is the sector distinct, with characteristics that differentiate it from the private and public sectors? Is it important to consider the existence of the so-called ‘third sector’ when analysing behaviour in the labour market? Is altruism really an important motivation for workers in this sector? This dissertation is concerned specifically with the labour market in the voluntary sector: that is, workers who are the paid employees of independent nonprofit organisations. Using a large, national dataset, we explore empirically the predictions of the economic theory of voluntary organisations. In particular, is there evidence for a ‘warm glow’, the extra utility that workers receive for working towards a goal that they share with their employer? Does this glow exist, and is it brighter in the voluntary sector? We examine in turn sector differences in wages, working hours, and find evidence that employment in the voluntary sector is significantly different in some characteristics from both the private and public sectors. The main economic theories of voluntary sector wage-setting rely on some formulation of ‘warm glow’ utility or intrinsic motivation derived from working for an organisation with a mission shared by motivated employees. This leads to a prediction of lower wages in the voluntary sector. The empirical findings in the existing literature have focussed on US data, and the results have been mixed. Using pooled cross-sectional and panel datasets based on UK employment data between 1997 and 2007, we show that there is some evidence of warm-glow wage discounts in the sector for male workers, but that these wage differences have been eroded as the sector has grown. Although there is not a significant sector wage difference found for women, there is evidence that they have also experienced faster wage growth in the voluntary sector than the private. There are significant sector differences in working hours within the Health & Social Work industries, particularly in overtime working. Workers in the voluntary sector work more hours of unpaid overtime, whilst those in the private sector work more hours of paid overtime. Controlling for overtime hours has a significant effect on sector wage differentials. In particular, accounting for unpaid overtime results in evidence of a warm-glow wage discount for female workers. We analyse this data at a time when the sector has been growing dramatically, driven by government policy to reform public services. Our findings suggest that this policy has had unintended consequences for the voluntary sector labour market.

Background: Virtual teams are becoming an increasingly prominent organizational unit, mainly as a result of globalization, digitalization, and the Covid-19 pandemic. While enabling operational advantages, virtuality may be adverse for the team members’ motivation as limited physical interaction in virtual teams can cause feelings of loneliness and demotivation. However, the full impact of the limited physical social interaction on member motivation remains unclear.  Purpose: The study’s purpose is to contribute to knowledge development regarding individual motivation in virtual teams, and how it is affected by limited physical social interaction. The study further aims to provide insight into how to manage such teams to strengthen the motivation of the virtual team members and thus improve the overall functioning of the team.  Method: A qualitative research design was utilized for this study. The empirical data was obtained through semi-structured interviews conducted with ten virtual team members operating within the IT industry. Further, an abductive research approach was applied, and the collected data were analyzed using thematic analysis.  Conclusion: Social dimensions are interdependent and affect each other. They also interplay with social identity and the need to belong. Limited social ties and socialization are generally a motivational issue, but the perception and motivational effect varies greatly between individuals as a result of personal factors. However, virtual team members are still generally motivated, mainly as a result of the independence that the virtual setting provides. Motivation can be improved over time as the team members get to know each other better. The manager should also plan physical, or if not feasible, digital social activities focused on bringing value and not awkwardness. Lastly, the manager is advised to promote team empowerment as it fosters prosocial motivation, which is generally preferable in virtual teams.

This research paper seeks to draw on social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) as an overarching framework to examine how unit managers’ ethical leadership style affects the team and individual prosocial voice behaviors in the context of social enterprises in Hong Kong. Ethical leadership has been found to be conducive to both desirable team and individual employee behaviors. However, scholarly understanding of the multi-level effects of ethical leadership and the underlying mechanisms involved is rather limited. Moreover, previous research has directed attention almost exclusively to the influence of ethical leadership in the context of commercial organizations. This narrow stance has curiously left open the question of whether ethical leadership can profoundly and uniquely induce prosocial and desirable outcomes among employees in typical hybrid organizations, such as social enterprises. first conducted 20 semi-structured interviews among employees, unit mangers, and senior executives from 29 social enterprises in Hong Kong to obtain the field illustrations of ethical leadership. Then, I proceeded to collect multi-level, multi-wave, and multi-sources data from employees, unit mangers, and senior executives (i.e., three sources) of 59 teams from the participating social enterprises across three points of times. Findings of both the qualitative and quantitative study confirmed the positive role of ethical leadership in social enterprises. More specifically, this study demonstrated that ethical leadership is vital for encouraging the team and individual to voice out their concerns and opinions through different motivational mechanisms. Team initiative climate mediated the relationships between team ethical leadership and both team and individual prosocial voice; individual prosocial motivation mediated the relationships between team ethical leadership and individual prosocial voice; team initiative climate mediated the relationships between team ethical leadership and individual prosocial motivation; and finally, individual prosocial motivation mediated the relationships between team initiative climate and individual prosocial voice. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

This study was initiated for the purpose to further understand the theoretical relationship between followers trust of the closest bound perceived servant leader and the predictability of the  followers organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Specifically, this study looked at the modifying effect of the followers prosocial motivation—the desire to benefit other people (Grant, 2008) on multilevel dimensions of trust (i.e. affect- and cognition-based trust) and how this could possibly predict if at all followers OCB. There is far less research specifically about servant leaders than those implementing transformational leadership theory (Joseph & Winston, 2005; van Dierendonck & Nuijten, 2011). There are numerous studies using transformational leadership based on the well-defined parameters that are proven to be a relatively strong predictive variable in a variety of theoretical fields (N. Eva, Sendjaya, & Prajogo, 2015). Zhu and Akhtars’ (2014) study on transformational leadership behavior and multi-levels of trust is the inspiration to the current research project. The current research project is a close replication of Zhu and Akhtars’ (2014) model with the replacement of transformational leadership with servant leadership. Data were collected from 39 followers and four leaders from seven different facilities in the greater Stockholm area. The results showed that affect-based trust mediated the relationship between servant-based leadership and followers OCB. In addition, affect-based trust mediated the relationship between servant leadership and followers OCB only with those with high prosocial motivation. As for cognition-based trust, there seems to be some interaction between cognition-based trust and the relationship between servant leadership and followers with low prosocial motivation. These results strengthen the conclusions of the original study by Zhu and Akhtar (2014). Finding that servant leadership does not predict follower’s organizational citizenship behaviors alone. To reach a better understanding on followers OCB and their interaction within a servant leadership organization one must look at the individual followers’ level of trust and prosocial motivation variables to further our understanding on how to encourage OCB.

Pour exercer un bon leadership, il est essentiel que les gestionnaires agissent au bénéfice des subordonnés. Cependant, nous en savons peu sur ce qui peut être mis en place dans leur contexte organisationnel pour les motiver à émettre des comportements ayant un impact positif sur leurs subordonnés. Grant (2007) suggère que pour maintenir la motivation à avoir un impact positif sur autrui au travail — la motivation prosociale — il est primordial de s’attarder aux caractéristiques relationnelles de l’emploi. Selon cet auteur, lorsque ces caractéristiques sont présentes, les comportements d’aide envers autrui seraient plus fréquents. Cette proposition a été appuyée empiriquement, mais n’a jamais été testée chez les gestionnaires quant à leurs subordonnés. La thèse a donc comme objectif de comprendre comment la motivation prosociale des gestionnaires envers leurs subordonnés peut être facilitée en appliquant la théorie des caractéristiques relationnelles de l’emploi à cette population. De plus, les comportements d’aide des gestionnaires seront étudiés pour examiner l’impact de leur motivation prosociale sur leurs comportements envers leurs subordonnés. Le premier article de la thèse présente une étude empirique dans laquelle les caractéristiques relationnelles de l’emploi et la motivation prosociale ont été explorées chez un échantillon de gestionnaires. Une étude transversale a été effectuée où les participants ont rapporté leur perception quant aux caractéristiques relationnelles de leur emploi, leur engagement affectif envers leurs subordonnés, leur perception d’avoir un impact prosocial sur leurs subordonnés, ainsi que leur motivation prosociale envers leurs subordonnés. Une analyse par équations structurelles révèle que les caractéristiques relationnelles des gestionnaires sont positivement associées à leur motivation prosociale à travers les effets indirects de l’engagement affectif envers les subordonnés et la perception d’avoir un impact prosocial sur les subordonnés. De plus, les opportunités d’être en contact avec les subordonnés sont positivement et directement associées à la motivation prosociale des gestionnaires. Cette étude a permis d’explorer pour la première fois, à notre connaissance, l’association entre les caractéristiques relationnelles de l’emploi et la motivation prosociale des gestionnaires envers leurs subordonnés. Le deuxième article présente une étude semi-longitudinale examinant la relation entre les caractéristiques relationnelles de l’emploi des gestionnaires, leur motivation prosociale envers leurs subordonnés, ainsi que leurs comportements proactifs et réactifs d’aide à la tâche. Les résultats suggèrent que les opportunités d’avoir un impact prosocial sur les subordonnés prédisent les comportements proactifs d’aide à la tâche des gestionnaires trois mois plus tard à travers la motivation prosociale envers les subordonnés. Les opportunités d’être en contact avec les subordonnés sont positivement associées aux comportements proactifs et réactifs d’aide à la tâche et prédisent la motivation prosociale des gestionnaires trois mois plus tard à travers les comportements proactifs d’aide. Nous observons que la motivation prosociale ne prédit pas les comportements réactifs d’aide à la tâche, et vice-versa. Cette étude est la première, à notre connaissance, à s’attarder aux conséquences comportementales des caractéristiques relationnelles de l’emploi des gestionnaires et de leur motivation prosociale envers leurs subordonnés. Par ailleurs, elle explore la direction de la relation entre la motivation prosociale et les comportements d’aide. / To exercise good leadership, it is essential that managers act for the benefit of subordinates. However, we know little about how their organizational context can motivate them to engage in behaviours that have a positive impact on their subordinates. Grant (2007) suggests that to maintain people’s motivation to have a positive impact on others at work – their prosocial motivation – it is essential to focus on the relational characteristics of their job. According to this author, when these characteristics are present, helping behaviours toward others would be more frequent. This proposition has been empirically supported in several studies but has never been tested in managers regarding their subordinates. The objective of this thesis is therefore to understand how managers’ prosocial motivation toward their subordinates can be facilitated by applying the theory of relational job design to this population. In addition, managers’ helping behaviours will be examined to explore the impact of their prosocial motivation on their behaviors towards their subordinates. The first paper of the thesis presents an empirical study in which relational job characteristics and prosocial motivation were explored in a sample of managers. A cross-sectional study was conducted, where participants reported their perception of the relational characteristics of their job, their affective commitment to their subordinates, their perception of prosocial impact on their subordinates, and their prosocial motivation towards their subordinates. Structural equations modelling reveals that managers’ relational job characteristics are positively associated with their prosocial motivation through the indirect effects of affective commitment to subordinates and perception of prosocial impact on subordinates. Moreover, opportunities to be in contact with subordinates are positively and directly associated with managers’ prosocial motivation. This study explored for the first time, to our knowledge, the association between relational job characteristics and managers’ prosocial motivation towards their subordinates. The second paper presents a semi-longitudinal study examining the relationship between managers’ relational job characteristics, their prosocial motivation towards their subordinates, and their proactive and reactive task helping towards their subordinates. Results suggest that opportunities to have a prosocial impact on subordinates predict managers’ proactive task helping three months later through the mediation of prosocial motivation toward subordinates. Opportunities to be in contact with subordinates are positively associated with proactive and reactive task helping and predict managers’ prosocial motivation three months later through the mediation of proactive task helping. We find in this study that prosocial motivation does not predict reactive task helping, and vice versa. This study is the first, to our knowledge, to focus on the behavioural consequences of managers’ relational job characteristics and their prosocial motivation towards their subordinates. Further, it examines the direction of the relationship between managers’ prosocial motivation and their task helping behaviours.