The primary interest of this investigation concerned working memory functioning and cue/act discrimination during encoding of intentions. The study included manipulations of working memory and intention load to investigate the encoding processes related to prospective memory (PM). Three experiments are presented that involve working memory distraction tasks at the time of encoding the PM intentions, as well as varying numbers of cues and actions. In the first experiment three cues were paired with one action, in the second, one cue with three actions, and in the third, three cues with three actions. Results suggest that the central executive is involved in binding a cue to an action, and that this operation is key to PM success. Furthermore, the phonological loop seems primarily involved with processing of cues and the visuospatial sketchpad with actions. It is further proposed that the processes of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad must be successful before the central executive can bind the cues and acts together, which is possibly the most important part in the encoding of intentions. By directly examining PM at the time of encoding, information was gained that allows for a more complete understanding of the nature of how we form and execute intentions.

La perception pour un individu que son fonctionnement est déterminé par ses propres actions et comportements serait l’un des facteurs clés d’un vieillissement cognitif réussi. Cette perception de contrôle conduirait à fournir des efforts soutenus pour rester performant sur le plan cognitif en dépit de l'avancée en âge, ce qui contribuerait au maintien de bonnes habiletés cognitives au fil du temps. Aujourd’hui, de nombreux travaux mettent en évidence que les personnes avec un fort sentiment de contrôle obtiennent de meilleures performances dans les tâches de mémoire épisodique que les autres. Néanmoins, l’hypothèse d’une préservation différentielle des capacités de mémoire épisodique en fonction du niveau de contrôle perçu manque encore de soutien empirique. A travers trois études expérimentales et la validation d’une nouvelle échelle de contrôle perçu spécifique à la mémoire, la présente thèse visait à déterminer si le contrôle perçu pouvait jouer un rôle positif dans l’évolution de la mémoire épisodique au fil de l’âge adulte puis à identifier les mécanismes explicatifs de la relation entre le contrôle perçu et la mémoire épisodique à différents âges de la vie adulte. Dans l’ensemble, nos études ne permettent pas de valider l’hypothèse selon laquelle un contrôle perçu plus élevé atténuerait les différences liées à l’âge en mémoire épisodique. En revanche, nos résultats suggèrent que les personnes, et en particulier les plus âgées, qui perçoivent leur mémoire comme contrôlable obtiennent de meilleures performances de mémoire épisodique que les autres grâce à une plus grande utilisation et à une exécution plus efficace de stratégies cognitives coûteuses en termes de ressources au cours de la tâche. / Perceiving one’s own functioning as determined by one’s own actions and behaviors would be one of the key factors of successful cognitive aging. Perceived control would lead to sustained efforts to maintain a high level of cognitive performance despite advancing age, which would predict a positive evolution of cognitive abilities over time. Currently, many studies show that people with higher levels of sense of control have better memory performance than people who believe that events are beyond their control. Nevertheless, there is still a lack of empirical support concerning the hypothesis of a differential preservation of memory abilities as a function of levels of perceived control. Through three experimental studies and the validation of a new scale evaluating memory control beliefs, this thesis aimed to determine whether perceived control could make a positive contribution to memory aging and to identify the mechanisms that may explain the relationship between perceived control and episodic memory at different ages. Overall, our studies do not support the hypothesis that higher perceived control would moderate age-related differences in episodic memory. However, our work suggests that individuals, especially the older ones, who perceive their memory as controllable obtain better performance during memory tasks than those who perceive their memory as uncontrollable through greater and more efficient use of resource-demanding cognitive strategies.

Prospective memory refers to the ability to remember to carry out delayed intentions, more precisely, to remember to initiate and execute an intended action at some point in the future. The development and progression of prospective memory across the lifespan is still heavily under debate. Only few studies have so far investigated prospective memory development in childhood, revealing an inconsistent pattern. In adulthood, studies in the laboratory and naturalistic studies showed paradoxical results with age deficits in the laboratory and age benefits in naturalistic tasks. Up to now, no conceptual model has been suggested to guide research on prospective memory development across the lifespan. Thus, the present work examined the effect of central factors from the multiprocess framework (McDaniel & Einstein, 2000) on the development of prospective memory in four different age-groups: pre-schoolers, school-age children, young and old adults. The first study explored the role of task motivation in age differences in prospective memory performance across the pre-school age-range. No main effect of age or motivation in prospective memory performance was found, yet a significant interaction, indicating that for younger children motivation or task importance may help allocating the available resources to the task elements of interest. Evidence from the second study indicated that 9-10 year old school children outperform 6-7 year old school children on a measure of prospective memory, and that retrieval-based factors (ongoing task absorption, cue salience, cue focality) systematically influenced performance. Of particular importance for possible developmental mechanisms was the finding of an age x cue focality interaction, suggesting that age effects may be modulated by cue focality. The third study examined the effect of task setting in a laboratory procedure and the effect of motivation in a naturalistic procedure on prospective memory performance in young and older adults. Results from the laboratory prospective memory procedure revealed significant age-related decline for irregular tasks but not for regular and focal tasks. In addition, in the naturalistic procedure, the age benefit was eliminated when young adults were motivated by incentives. Results from the present work indicated that already pre-school age children were able to remember to perform intended actions and this ability increased across school-age. In adulthood, the results revealed a decline with age on a pure performance level. Yet, older adults may be able to compensate for basic cognitive impairments if task conditions reduce the need for controlled attention. Furthermore, the present work suggest, that factors of the multiprocess framework may indeed affect age-differences in prospective memory performance throughout the lifespan, as cue focality and task importance were related to prospective memory development in children and adults. Thus, the multiprocess approach might serve as foundation for a lifespan theory of the development of prospective memory.

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Location-based reminder systems (LBRs) are typically used to remind people to complete a to-do task at a particular location. People use their prospective memory to remember future to-do tasks. However, the current design of LBRs fails to take advantage of human prospective memory theory. In this dissertation, I propose a framework connecting human prospective memory theory with LBRs. My work applies human prospective memory into the technical design of LBRs. The goal of my work is to make the reminder work more consistently with how human memory works. Prospective memory research suggests that encoding of the location and familiarity with the location have an impact on prospective remembering. I conducted two empirical studies to test how this theoretical knowledge applies to LBRs. In one experiment, I hypothesized that if the encoding stage provides a closer match to the retrieval stage in LBRs, then location recognition and task recall should improve at retrieval time. The results indicate that providing a first-person view (street view of the desired location) at the encoding stage benefits prospective remembering the most. Prospective memory theory also suggests that the familiarity with the external cue has a significant influence on prospective remembering. In the second experiment, I hypothesized that familiarity with a location has an impact on the location recognition at the retrieval. The results show that the encoding interface is used differently for familiar and unfamiliar cities and businesses to support recognizing a target location. The findings have implications for the design of future LBRs. I designed an LBR prototype by applying these empirical research findings and conducted a usability evaluation. Future designers of LBR should consider 1) providing more support in matching the encoding stage to the eventual cue in retrieval stage and 2) involving user’s familiarity level with the places at the encoding stage to provide a better user experience. My work showed the importance of using prospective memory theory in the design of LBR systems. / Ph. D.

L’objectif majeur de cette thèse de doctorat est d’étudier la pression temporelle afin de mieux appréhender cette notion si familière et pourtant si peu étudiée. A partir de l’observation de l’omniprésence de cette pression temporelle dans notre société et de l’importance de la perception du temps dans nos activités quotidiennes, nous avons choisi de l’examiner à travers son influence sur l’estimation de durées. Pour ce faire, nous avons mis en place une série d’expérimentations : d’abord dans le cadre de la littérature sur l’estimation du temps, utilisant des tâches temporelle d’estimation verbale et de production de durées ; puis dans le cadre de la littérature sur la mémoire prospective, et plus précisément avec des tâches de mémoire prospective basée sur le temps. Notre hypothèse est que la pression temporelle provoque une modification du temps perçu. Les résultats de nos premières expérimentations réalisées avec des tâches temporelles d’estimation verbale et de production de durées révèlent que soumettre des participants à une condition de pression temporelle provoque une distorsion temporelle comparée à une condition sans pression temporelle. Cette distorsion temporelle va dans le sens d’une surestimation des durées. En revanche, aucun effet de la pression temporelle n’a été relevé dans les expérimentations réalisées avec les tâches de mémoire prospective basée sur le temps, si ce n’est sur les performances à la tâche non temporelle, aussi appelée tâche en cours. / This doctoral thesis aims at investigating time pressure to have a better understanding of this so familiar concept and yet so little studied. On the one hand, time pressure is ubiquitous in our occidental society; on the other hand, time perception is essential in our daily activities. Then, we have consciously opted to study time pressure through its effects on time estimation. To this end, we elaborate series of experiments within two different frameworks; time estimation literature with two different tasks (verbal estimation and time production) and prospective memory literature, more precisely with time-based prospective memory tasks. Our assumption is that time pressure leads to a subjective time distortion. The results of our experiments reveal that time pressure causes a temporal distortion when participants have to estimate or produce a duration: in the condition with time pressure they overestimate durations, compared to a condition without time pressure. In contrast, no time pressure effect is revealed on the temporal component of our time-based prospective memory task; but performance on the ongoing task is affected by time pressure.

La section 1 permet premièrement de constater que les fonctions exécutives (FE) sont plus sévèrement atteintes lorsqu'elles sont dans une période de développement rapide et que l'utilisation de tests papier-crayon sous-estime largement les conséquences du TC sur la vie quotidienne. Deuxièmement, elle confirme les conséquences du TC sur la mémoire prospective. Enfin, elle présente les résultats pilotes d'une évaluation multimodale de la métacognition et montre des dissociations de l'atteinte de ses différents composants chez des enfants cérébro-lésés. Elle propose également un modèle d'anosognosie de l'enfant, permettant de mieux adapter la rééducation cognitive aux capacités de l'enfant. La section 2 tente de proposer des moyens d'améliorer les FE. Une revue systématique de la littérature examine d'abord l'efficacité du Goal Management Training (GMT) chez l'adulte cérébro-lésé puis est décrit l'adaptation du GMT à l'enfant. Cette étude confirme la difficulté de rééduquer les FE, avec des résultats contradictoires entre les critères de jugement (certains enfants s'améliorant sur la tâche écologique des FE et d'autres sur les questionnaires de FE). De plus, quand ils étaient confrontés à une nouvelle recette de cuisine, les enfants revenaient à leur comportement dysexécutif, suggérant que la fonction d'adaptation à la nouveauté n'avait pas progressé. La discussion alerte sur la nécessité de mieux prendre en compte les aspects développementaux chez l'enfant cérébro-lésé, concernant l'anosognosie et l'utilisation de stratégies métacognitives. Elle propose également des critères de jugement et de méthodologies innovants pour la recherche sur la rééducation des FE de l'enfant. / Part one of this PhD explored executive functions (EF) and related impairments after childhood severe TBI. Executive dysfunction was worse when the injury occurred during the period of rapid development of EF. Paper and pencil tasks underestimated EF impairment in daily life. Impairment in prospective memory persisted at seven years post injury, and into adulthood. A model of child anosognosia, and directions for cognitive rehabilitation interventions, are proposed based on a study of self-awareness after childhood TBI. Part two of this PhD investigated methods of remediating EF dysfunction. A systematic review found that Goal Management Training (GMT) is effective in adults when coupled with personal goal setting, external cueing, personalised homework to increase patients' commitment and training intensity and daily life training activities. Based on this literature review, a paediatric GMT intervention was adapted and tested. The intervention showed limited effectiveness, with inconsistency across outcome measures. Children did not apply the metacognitive strategies taught during the training. Furthermore, there was no evidence of generalisation of task-specific improvements to a novel, parallel version of the secondary outcome measure (the Children’s Cooking Task). The adapted GMT did not seem developmentally coherent for younger children. It is clear that deficits in EF arising from TBI continue to be an important target for rehabilitation interventions in children. Proposals on how the use of novel innovative outcome measures and methodologies may improve the field of EF rehabilitation in children with TBI are presented.

While a growing body of research indicates that older adults typically perform more poorly on many types of memory tasks than do younger adults, relatively little research has addressed the question of whether this trend continues unchanged into the late ninth and tenth decades of life. Such decrements in memory have been reported as linear declines from early adulthood up until about 80 years of age. Questions arise as to whether such memory declines slow or accelerate in very advanced aging, and to what extent differences are due to aging, per se, or variables that intervene between age and memory.To address these two questions, six memory types - verbal recall, nonverbal recall, short-term memory, working memory, face recognition, and prospective memory - were examined using both cross-sectional and longitudinal methodologies. The six types of memory and the influence of verbal processing speed, nonverbal processing speed, and intelligence were examined in mixed-gender groups of 20 - 40 (n = 40, M = 30.7, SD = 5.52), 50 - 70 (n = 44, M = 59.2, SD = 4.94), and 85+ year olds (n = 42, M = 87.8, SD = 2.43), at two points, the second occurring two years after the first. Each participant completed tests of word recall, geometric shapes recall, short-term memory (digit span), working memory (letter-number sequencing), face recognition, and prospective memory. Additionally, there were two processing speed tasks (Identical Pictures and Finding As), and the National Adult Reading Test of verbal fluency was used to estimate intelligence. The Mini-Mental State Examination and the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) were used to screen for dementia and depression, respectively.At Time 1 testing the 85+ participants showed declines in all memory types (compared to the 20 - 40 year olds). Nonverbal recall (66.2% lower than the young group), working memory (46.2%), verbal recall (45%), and prospective memory (38.2%) produced the largest differences, short-term memory (12.3%) and face recognition (14.7%) the least. Two years later, the 85+ years old participants had shown further declines, relative to the 20 - 40 years group. Nonverbal recall (72.3% lower than the young group), prospective memory (63.2%), working memory (55.3%), and verbal recall (54.7%) continued to produce the largest decrements, with short-term memory (18.9%) and face recognition (19.8%) the least. The results for the young and middle participants did not change appreciably between Time 1 and Time 2. The difference between unadjusted scores and scores adjusted for intelligence, verbal processing speed, and nonverbal processing speed, increased markedly between Time 1 and Time 2 testing for the oldest-old participants.These findings support the view that while memory declines may be approximately linear from age 20 to 80 years, there is a sharp decline in most types of memory after the age of 85 years, recall and working memory suffering the most. Intelligence and processing speed have an effect on some types of memory, but age is by far the largest contributor to memory decline. Furthermore, as expected, all memory types declined over the two-year period, with prospective memory, verbal recall, nonverbal recall, and working memory showing the greatest declines. Short-term memory and face recognition declined at a noticeably slower rate.