<p> Ethnic identity provides both affective and rational sense of belonging to a cultural group. In 1915, the Armenian race survived an attempted ethnic cleansing by the Ottoman Turks, which has an impact on the way Armenians conceptualize themselves ethnically today. Past research has failed to consider the role of affective empathy in ethnic identity. This study sought to explore the relationship between ethnic identity and empathy in second-generation Armenian-Americans. A convenience sample of fifty Armenian-American adults born in the United States participated in the study. Quantitative measures and qualitative, open-ended questions were utilized to gather data. Phinney&rsquo;s (1992) Multi Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) was utilized to assess ethnic identity, and Spreng&rsquo;s (2009) Toronto Empathy Questionnaire (TEQ) was utilized to measure empathy. Statistical analyses comparing the relationship between levels of ethnic identity and empathy did not yield significant results. Content analysis of qualitative data revealed themes of Armenian ethnic identity providing feelings of strength and pride, as well as it being a rational concept rather than affective. Additionally, themes revealed a desire to assimilate to the host country.</p><p>

<p> This study examined the relationship between counselor ethnic-racial identity (CERI), counselor exposure to client trauma (CECT), counselor wellness (CW), and counselor burnout (CB). Ethical practice requires that counselors avoid impairment, in part, by increasing wellness. Therefore, understanding the factors that impact wellness and burnout is essential due to prevalence of trauma and the profession&rsquo;s growing diversity. Participants (N = 138) completed the Ethnic Identity Scale (EIS-B), Secondary Traumatic Stress Scale (STSS), Counselor Burnout Inventory (CBI), and Five Factor Wellness Inventory (FFWel-A2). A path analysis was utilized to examine the simultaneous relationship between the variables. Differences between majority (n = 62) and minority participants (n = 76) were explored using subsequent path analyses. Results and recommendations for future research are discussed. </p><p>

Drawing upon the emerging literature that examines differences in values about marriage, this study examined how broader cultural values of western societies, based in individualism, and eastern societies, based in collectivism, shape values about marriage. In comparing the marital value system of European Americans with that of Lebanese or Lebanese-Americans, a theory of cultural identity was utilized. While Americans were expected to value the self-reflective aspect of marriage, which nuclearizes marriage around the husband-wife relationship, the Lebanese were expected to value the familial aspect of marriage, which views the union as a relational entity, the value of which is closely connected to that of the family system. Using a Q sort technique—a method of rank ordering a set of statements about values of interest—two factors were extrapolated, indicating two distinct sets of values regarding marriage. The first cluster of individuals (Factor I) consisted of two thirds of the Americans sample and a quarter of the Lebanese sample. The second cluster (Factor II) consisted of a majority of the Lebanese and a single American participant. As hypothesized, the values highlighted in the first factor, or 'western'-driven factor, focused on romance; the endorsement of physical and psychological intimacy; and the belief that marriage is a private enterprise that only takes account of the marital values of the couple (i.e., 'couple' individualism). Also as hypothesized, the beliefs highlighted by the second factor, or Lebanese factor, focused on values such as psychological intimacy more than physical closeness as well as the importance of family, in particular their own parents, to marriage. Also important to this group was the endorsement of romanticism, particularly the idea of soul mate as marital partner. Demographic characteristics of the Lebanese sample indicated that education was a determining feature for distinguishing factor loadings. Specifically, we found that the Lebanese who loaded on the 'western'-driven factor were significantly more educated than their compatriots who loaded on the 'Lebanese' factor. With regards to gender, both a Q sort and ANOVA analysis found no differences within nationality or between nationalities, disconfirming previous research that American women are more communal (i.e., more 'eastern') than American men; and that women immigrants adopt the host cultures' values more readily than their male counterparts when such country provides more opportunity. Finally, we recommended that the development of a marital quality scale for Arabs in general should include items that reflect the values found in this study to be important to the majority of the Lebanese in addition to the traditionally 'western' items that were found to also be of value to this population.

Theories of emotion and intergroup relations predict a link between fear, outgroup perception, and behavioral intentions toward specific groups. However, surprisingly, past research has not empirically tested the impact of actually experiencing incidental fear on appraisals of in- and outgroups and socially impactful decision-making. Accordingly, the goals of this dissertation were three-fold: (1) to determine whether the experience of incidental fear increases biased decision-making targeted at racial outgroup vs. ingroup members; (2) to investigate whether some individuals are more impacted by fear than others; and (3) to explore the psychological mechanism underlying the biasing impact of fear. In Study 1, fear increased race biased decision-making for female (but not male) participants, and for those who chronically believe the world is a dangerous place. In Study 2, fear shunted attention selectively towards Black over White faces for female (but not male) participants; however, it did not produce race biased decision-making. In Study 3, fear did not modulate attention to danger-relevant stimuli or intergroup decision-making. The implications of these findings and future research directions are discussed.

A review of theories explicating identity processes and racial categorization demonstrate a growing trend towards continual adaptation and response to social context. However, current models of racial identity are characterized by relatively static, linear development. The current study introduces the construct of malleable racial identity in multiracial individuals as a means to resolve the current disconnect between racial identity models and definitions of race and identity as socially-constructed. Two methods of malleable racial identity were developed and tested, and predictors of malleable racial identity were explored. One hundred and twenty multiracial college students with parents from two different racial groups completed a series of measures assessing malleable racial identity, self-perception of skin tone, racial composition of social networks, and familial racial socialization practices. Three main findings emerged. First, confirmatory factor analyses provided preliminary support for the construct of malleable racial identity as assessed through an 8-item self-report measure. Second, individuals who identified as having darker skin tones reported greater levels of malleable racial identification. Third, shifts towards more racially homogenous academic environments during college were associated with increased levels of malleable racial identification. Improvements to study measures are described and results are discussed in terms of the implications for conceptualizations of race and identity.

The current research examines how members of groups that have been victimized by ethnopolitical violence cognitively construe their group’s experiences, and how these construals – referred to as victim consciousness (VC) – affect intergroup relations. It is proposed and shown in three empirical studies that VC can vary in its focus. On the one hand, some group members may construe their group’s experiences narrowly, and perceive their group’s victimization as unique (exclusive VC). On the other hand, ingroup victimization may be construed broadly such that outgroups who have been victims of group-based violence are perceived to be similar to the ingroup, and thereby included in a common victimized ingroup (inclusive VC). I propose that these contrasting representations mediate the effect of ingroup victimization on distinct outgroup orientations; specifically, exclusive VC should predict revenge or competitive victimhood, whereas inclusive VC should predict increased prosocial behavior toward victimized outgroups. Three studies (correlational and quasi-experimental) test the underlying processes and moderators of the two proposed forms of VC across different contexts.

<p> The experience of depression and overall well-being for multi-ethnic individuals is influenced by numerous factors including immigration experience, acculturative stress, English language proficiency, perceived discrimination, and ethnic identity. Multi-ethnic individuals are at a heightened risk for mental health difficulties due to limited access to resources within the community and mental health stigma. Lack of social support and culturally appropriate services magnify this disparity for this population. This study evaluates the impact of the Multi-ethnic Collaborative of Community Agencies (MECCA) Outreach &amp; Engagement (O&amp;E) program, a community-based program that provides culturally-responsive services, support, and resources for marginalized ethnic specific communities. Services of the program include case management, life coaching, skill building classes and groups, and referrals to services within the community. Using a pre and posttest design, outcomes related to depression symptoms and overall well-being were assessed for participants in the program for 2 fiscal years. For the 1^st fiscal year, participants reported an improvement in well-being and no significant decrease in depression symptoms. For the 2^nd fiscal year, participants reported both a decrease in depression symptoms and in increase in overall well-being. These findings suggest that culturally responsive community-based interventions focused on increasing social support, providing resources, and addressing mental health stigma can be valuable in addressing depression and well-being in multi-ethnic communities. In addition, the results also suggest that ethnic-specific services conducted in an individual&rsquo;s native language may have a positive impact on depression and well-being.</p>

<p> Middle Eastern individuals represent a heterogeneous group comprised of different nationalities, languages, and religious identifications. Yet, Middle Eastern Americans are widely underrepresented in the psychotherapy literature. Extant literature appears to focus on professional opinions about what psychotherapists should do when working with this population, including understanding cultural factors, such as incorporating family in treatment and acculturation status. Considering cultural communication patterns among this population, emotion is generally understood to be inhibited or suppressed, as disclosing personal problems and expressing emotion outside the family sphere can be viewed as disloyal and/or shaming. Thus, one of the many areas mental health clinicians should consider when working with Middle Eastern clients is how to recognize emotional communication patterns and identify and assist their clients with emotion regulation and/or dysregulation in a culturally sensitive manner. </p><p> To address the need for research on how emotions are expressed and regulated in psychotherapy with Middle Eastern clients, this study qualitatively analyzed three psychotherapy cases from a university&rsquo;s community counseling center&rsquo;s archival research database. More specifically, the researchers used an inductive content analysis approach with emotion, emotion regulation and InVivo codes to observe themes of emotional expression, regulation and dysregulation that emerged from the gathered data from a course of psychotherapy with these Middle Eastern American clients to further classify the observable phenomena (Elo &amp; Kyng&auml;s, 2008; Hsieh &amp; Shannon, 2005; Salda&ntilde;a, 2009; Weber, 1990). </p><p> Consistent with previous literature, results indicated that negative emotions were coded more frequently in psychotherapy sessions than positive emotions, as was the emotional regulation strategy of <i>Experiential Avoidance</i>. Surprisingly, data emerged revealing positive emotion regulation strategies (e.g., acceptance and emotional identification) that were not identified by literature describing this population. By obtaining a better understanding of how Middle Eastern American clients expressed and utilized their emotions in treatment, this study may be useful to the future work of clinicians and researchers targeting treatment of these individuals in a culturally sensitive manner and in an approach that emphasizes positive emotion regulation strategies.</p><p>

<p> According to Pollock and Van Reken (2009), Third Culture Kids (TCKs) are individuals who have lived a significant amount of time in countries other than their passport country during their developmental years prior to repatriating. While TCK identity and identity development have been studied (Schaetti, 2000), there is a dearth of research that examines their racial identity development. This is unfortunate particularly for White United States American TCKs who have spent time in non-White countries, as their racial identity begins in a very different setting than the setting they enter upon repatriation. This author wishes to understand the White TCK experience of race, as it may not conform to current racial identity models (Helms, 1993; Sue &amp; Sue, 2009). It is this author&rsquo;s hope that if White TCK racial experience can be understood, it will be possible to educate White TCKs, their families, and their educators. This in turn may better prepare them for the experience of repatriation. In addition, just as many TCKs find comfort in learning that they develop specific traits and identities due to living across cultures (Pollock &amp; Van Reken, 2009; Schaetti, 2000), they may find comfort in having their racial experience normalized.</p><p>

The current research integrates social cognitive theories of psychological construals and information processing with theories of social identity to identify the conditions under which multiculturalism helps versus hinders positive intergroup relations. Three experiments investigated how abstract vs. concrete construals of multiculturalism impact majority group members' attitudes and behavioral intentions toward ethnic minorities in the US. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that construing multiculturalism in abstract terms by highlighting its broad goals reduced majority group members' prejudice toward ethnic minorities by decreasing the extent to which diversity is seen as threatening the national group. However, construing multiculturalism in concrete terms by highlighting specific ways in which its goals can be achieved increased majority group members' prejudice toward minorities by amplifying the extent to which diversity is seen as threatening the national group. Experiment 3 then revealed that a different concrete construal that incorporates values and practices of both majority and minority groups reduced perceived threats to the national group and in turn attenuated prejudice and increased desire for contact with ethnic minorities. Collectively, these experiments demonstrate when and why multiculturalism leads to positive versus negative intergroup outcomes, while identifying new ways in which multiculturalism can be successfully implemented in pluralistic nations.