Eyewitnesses‘ descriptions of suspects often refer to distinctive facial features, such as tattoos or scars, and the police have to decide how best to create fair lineups in these circumstances. This issue, despite its importance, has attracted insufficient attention in the eyewitness identification literature. Informed by the Police and Criminal Evidence Act code of practice and current police practice, I conducted an empirical evaluation of the different lineup techniques that investigators currently use for suspects with distinctive features. To ensure that a suspect does not stand out because of his distinctive feature, and also to extract more information from the eyewitness, the police either replicate the distinctive feature across all foils in the lineup or conceal the distinctive feature on the face of the suspect. These techniques were tested either in a crossover recognition-memory paradigm (Study 1), or in a lineup-identification paradigm (Studies 2, 3, and 4), either in computer-based laboratory experiments or real-world field experiments using both target-present and target-absent lineups. The results showed that replication is a better technique than concealment. Compared to concealment, replication increases target identifications in target present lineups—in some cases by decreasing foil identifications in target-absent lineups. The hybrid-similarity (HS) model of face recognition was used to assess whether it could be applied in this domain. Across seven experiments (Studies 1, 2, and 3) and three paradigms, the HS model was able to model the qualitative pattern of results. The purpose of this experimental work was to demonstrate the importance of constructing fair lineups for people with distinctive features and to provide results that will have practical implications for legal contexts and will improve our understanding of face recognition and recognition memory in general.

This thesis sets out to attack beliefs that caring is women's work, to examine the reasons for the resistance to changing conventions about sex roles and health work and, in view of coming changes in British demographic and socio-economic structures, to urge people to consider the question, who cares for us? The paradox of men caring makes its impact precisely because of the history and culture of women caring. The force of the image is as great as the contrast which makes it: men look like misfits in the caring role because women have been typecast for it. It is the extraordinary contrast of men carers and nurses talking about their caring feelings that forces the paradox. In this study, the men and women nurses and carers who were interviewed discuss their feelings as the very reason for their caring work, including emotion work and dirty work. The thesis argues that the men and women share the same caring values but their caring roles are conflicted by beliefs about sexual identity. Men's caring act is culturally constructed whereas women's caring act is directed by biological and cultural beliefs that help to perpetuate women's structured dependency in caring roles. The feminisation of caring designates the swamp of unthinking about women, feelings and bodies that breeds wrong beliefs about health work and sex roles and subverts the moral order of caring values. This is feminist methodology, characterised by being reflexive, political and experimental. The resulting exploratory study combines qualitive fieldwork with theoretical inquiry. It is a deconstuction of sex roles and health work, exploring the feminisation of caring through the language of care and the history of nursing, the difficulties with current social theory that genders caring and ignores feelings, most importantly, the stories of men and women nurses and carers who talk about their caring feelings, their work and their beliefs about caring sex roles, and finally the context of caring in the UK today. In conclusion, current beliefs about sex roles and health work undermine the moral order of caring values at a time when the task of caring for elderly people is increasing. What is required is the political will to begin the public debate on who should care for vulnerable kith and kin and who should pay for the work to be done?

The purpose of this study is to illustrate the extent to which colonial welfare ideas and practices shaped social welfare in Malaysia, with particular reference to child welfare services. In particular, the study explores the scope in which social welfare services was established and developed by the colonial government, the degree of the colonial government's intervention in child welfare services, and the guidelines used by the colonial officials to resolve child welfare issues during the period of 1946-1957. Midgley's Social Welfare Models considers the role of diffusion of colonial welfare ideas and practices, and the residual conception in the approach to welfare within the context of colonialism. The study has employed archival materials on British colonial administration in Malaya kept in the UK National Archive and the Malaysian National Archive to illuminate Midgley's Social Welfare Model. Interviews with Malaysian ex-welfare officers who had personal experience of working at the Department of Social Work (OSW) during the British colonial period were also carried out. The study indicates that, as a contribution to historical and sociological knowledge, children welfare services in Malaya were first organized for immigrant labourers to ensure a regular and reliable supply of healthy workforce. This denotes that the focus of the colonial government was on the exploitation of Malaya's economy, and social welfare issues were peripheral. This standpoint taken by the British colonial government has indeed conformed to the abovementioned welfare model. The study has also revealed that during the period of 1946-1957, the British made efforts to provide welfare for the people of Malaya with the establishment of DSW in 1946. However, the DSW faced complexity of handling welfare issues, such as children welfare, within a multiethnic society because of the different cultures, values and beliefs that existed. The study also suggests that the needs of Europeans and key workers were the prime concerns of the colonial government for their commercial interests. The study has shown that ideas on welfare from the host country were instituted, although, on some occasions, the government made attempts to adapt these ideas to suit the local circumstances. The study concludes that Malayan welfare policy enacted by the British colonial officials followed British welfare ideas and accepted the role of voluntary bodies in the provision of welfare to children. Thus, the government took a residual approach to welfare in which welfare services were provided for the needy and the government played a minimalist role in welfare provision. Although the colonial government contributed to the development of child welfare services in Malaya during the period of 1946-1957, the implementation of the services did. not follow any specific welfare model and no definite child welfare policy was particularly drawn up for Malaya.

There are two main foci in this research. The first has to do with police officers' management of psychiatric referrals, using their powers under Section 136 of the Mental Health Act, the second with interprofessional relations between the police and psychiatrists. A Section 136 case is defined so as to include all referrals where a mental health disposal is initiated by the police as opposed to a court or other mental health professional. The research is an attempt to describe police officers involvement with psychiatric referrals and the nature of and reasons behind the decisions they make, and to understand the nature of professional relationships that exist between police officers and psychiatrists in applying this part of the Mental Health Act. The concepts used, and theoretical underpinnings of the research are in the main derived from the sociology of 'mental illness'. Use, has been made of the theory of professional dominance to analyse police action and interaction with psychiatrists. Both quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection and analysis have been used. Primacy has not been given to one or other approach, rather an attempt has been made to integrate both, so as to present as full a picture as possible of the issues under investigation. Data was primarily collected by means of interviews with police officers from 11 different police stations in the North East Metropolitan Police area. This was supplemented by the use of participant observation at one police station, interviews with psychiatrists at two hospitals and analysis of police documents and administrative records. The study has been divided into three sections: preparing for and carrying out the research (Chapters 1-4); the analysis and presentation of findings (Chapters 5-8); discussion and implications of the results and re-examining the theory (Chapter 9-10). It was rare for officers to initiate referrals themselves, it was mainly as a response to others that they became involved. Officers were generally unaware that they were responding to a mental health emergency prior to arriving at an incident, and decisions to apprehend were made for policing rather than psychiatric reasons. Officers did not always use Section 136 as an authority for arrest where a psychiatric disposal was subsequently sought. A combination of physical restraint and verbal strategies were used to manage referrals. Officers tended not to treat these differently to other suspects, whilst on the streets, but treated them less punitively than other detainees once at the station. It was found that there was a tendency to exclude other forms of deviancy in identifying mental disorder. Most referrals could have been charged with a criminal offence and officers' reasons for not preferring charges were examined, of which external considerations, (such as the policy of the courts) were found to be important. Police and psychiatrists generally shared the same perceptions about their client group in terms of the latter's appropriateness to be dealt with by the psychiatric services. With the exception of police ability to diagnose mental disorder, there was agreement about the nature of officer's role in relation to Section 136. Interprofessional contact and perceptions of one another were characterised by distance and indifference. At the hospital, psychiatrists assumed a superordinate role over the police officers. However, police officers exercised considerable autonomy over decision making at the police station which acted to threaten the psychiatrists gatekeeping powers.

My research explores the cultural practices and identities of the descendants of an estimated 100,000 children who were despatched to Canada, unaccompanied by their parents, and under the auspices of a number of British charities, between 1869 and the late 1940s. It investigates the relationship between the descendants' individual and collective projects of recovery and commemoration and wider issues of postcolonial nationhood, ethnicity, and culture. It also focuses on the relationships between personal, family, national, and transnational identities, and on the ways in which the so called Home Children are being commemorated in contemporary Canada amongst competing cultural and political agendas. During two extended trips to Canada, I conducted fifty nine in-depth interviews and two group interviews that allowed me to obtain an insight into the identities, experiences and attitudes of the descendants of Home Children. In this thesis I will discuss the findings of this research. I will report on the ways in which personal and wider senses of identity, ethnicity, and nationhood are produced and expressed through the activities of descendants who are attempting to research and recover unknown family histories and places of origin of ancestors.

This thesis takes a rare and exploratory look at the experience of positive emotions in work settings, examining their causes and consequences. It begins by reviewing and offering a critique of previous organisational research related to this topic, which has tended to focus on the rather narrow concept of job satisfaction. In line with a recent theory of workplace affect (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996), it is argued that a more in-depth look at positive emotions as momentary reactions to events may improve our understanding of how workplace positive affect is linked to various organisational outcomes. A two-part study was carried out within a sample of home care workers for older people. In the first part, a qualitative diary study (n = 9) was conducted to explore in real-time the types of events that produce positive emotions at work on a day-to-day basis, and to explore the cognitive and behavioural outcomes of these emotions. Based on the findings of this study, a larger scale quantitative diary study (n = 77) was designed and conducted with the aim of examining the patterns of relationships between these variables. It was found that the most common sources of positive emotions in care workers were related to social interactions with clients and, to a lesser extent, to task performance; a number of dispositional factors were found to influence the intensity of positive emotional experiences. Positive emotions were in turn found to predict the likelihood of a wide range of beneficial individual and organisational outcomes (including increased motivation, creative insights and favourable attitudes towards the job). In the light of the findings, it is tentatively argued that we may be able to meaningfully distinguish between socially-oriented and task-oriented positive emotional experiences at work. This thesis reaches the conclusion that differentiating between positive emotions (as temporary states) and job satisfaction (as a relatively stable attitude) may improve the specific predictive power of each of the two separate sets of constructs. It is argued that this research, although directed at a specific occupational population, may to some extent apply to other occupations.

The study aims to explore young disabled peoples I concerns about independent living, and how they view the source of that independence. The transition to adulthood poses particular problems for young physically disabled adults and independent living is a widely shared goal. The independent living movement has spearheaded an increasing awareness amongst disabled people of their rights as human beings and citizens and has brought together ideas on independent living and ways of achieving it. The philosophy of independent living is based on four assumptions: that all human life is of value; that anyone, regardless of their impairment, is capable of exerting choices; that people who are disabled by society's reaction to physical, intellectual and sensory impairment and to emotional distress have a right to have control over their lives, with whatever assistance they need to do so; and that disabled people have the right to participate fully in society. Government policy is consonant with the aims of the independent living movement: to keep individuals in the community and to address their needs more appropriately. This study, which is based upon data from 42 young physically disabled adults uses qualitative methods which were inspired by the ideals of the Emancipatory Research Paradigm. Interviews were in-depth and informal and focussed on the periods before, during, and after transition. The work was conducted from the standpoint of the seven fundamental needs outlined in the social model of disability. To what extent had the young people achieved independent living? None of the sample had achieved independent living in its fullest sense in terms of employment, independent housing, financial and personal control of assistance, life style, relationships, educational qualifications or transport. A minority had achieved some of these. The majority had low self-esteem and had received inadequate support from families and the education system and had poor employment prospects. Most were reliant on benefits which were insufficient to meet the extra costs associated with disability and few had received support from social services. Most appeared destined for a life on the margins of society.

This thesis applies aesthetic language to a variety of practices associated with the production and analysis of criminal identification portraits. Much of what might seem to be standardised in this model of portraiture was influenced by abstract visual techniques that were developed in the late nineteenth century, specifically in the work of Alphonse Bertillon and Francis Galton, which frequently moves away from the judicial, into the experimental. Structured theoretically as opposed to chronologically, this thesis provides a thorough examination of the components - material, technological, temporal, and symbolic - that constitute the identification portrait. The theoretical resonance of Galton’s composite portrait photography and other abstract techniques is seen to inform twentieth century and recent debates on photographic portraiture, and the transformation of the portrait for which Bertillon was responsible, which placed great emphasis on the need to summarise, even memorise, a subject’s ‘data’ for police purposes, is found to have a legacy that extends far beyond the standardised ‘mug shot’ into much more imaginary territories. Jacques Derrida’s terminology for the supplement, Roland Barthes’ commentaries on the photographic portrait, Julia Kristeva’s model of colour perception, and Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari’s notion of the ‘body without organs’, are some of the many theoretical models with which this material is seen to resonate.

There is an alarming increasing number of children living either partially or permanently on the streets of African countries. This research has been undertaken with children who live their lives more permanently on the streets of Accra the capital city of Ghana. The study is focused on their survival strategies and investigates the detail of their day to day lives on the street. In addition, this thesis illustrates the home experiences of these Street children prior to their coming onto the street. These experiences include poverty, neglect and abuse. On the street, the life of the children is full of the struggle for survival and is. characterised by the complexities of the Street Children's vulnerability as well as their resilience. The study reveals interactions and negotiations that go on between Street Children and their community, their peers and other people they come across in their settings, for their mental, emotional and physical wellbeing.

Youth work, as a form of engaging young people "in which the participation of young people is voluntary and the aims are broadly educational" (Harrison and Wise (eds.), 2009: 1) has been positioned as an inherently ethical practice (see: Sercombe, 1998; National Youth Agency, 1999). However, what makes youth work ethical and what constitutes ethical youth work is currently the subject of some debate. At present, two broad, overlapping schools of thought exist: that youth work is made ethical by the fact that the procedures within it are more equitable and fairer (Young, 1999; NYA, 1999); or that youth work is made ethical by the fact that it holds the young person as its primary constituent, receiving its 'mandate' directly from them (Sercombe, 1998; 2010). To this debate I would like to provide an alternative model of ethics which focuses on the potential to disrupt unequal relations of power and unsettle discourse. In doing so I will be able to highlight the existent possibilities for and limitations on the production of an ethical youth work practice. This model is drawn from a Foucauldian reading of ethics. Foucauldian ethics focuses on the capacity of the subject to disrupt discourse and challenge power relations. Applying this Foucauldian ethics, the thesis explores what about youth work creates openings for the subject to disrupt discourse. These openings, I argue, are rooted in the ambiguity of the discourse of youth work. This ambiguity is the result of the production of youth work discourse by multiple, contradictory understandings of youth, adulthood and 'good' youth-adult relations. These manifest in the varying sub-discourses of positive youth work co-existent within the overarching youth work discourse. Using evidence from policy textwork and ethnographic fieldwork at a youth club in Nottingham (Urban Youth) I illustrate how the co-existence of these understandings renders the subject-positions and subject-functions of youth workers and young people in youth work discourse ambiguous. As such what constitutes positive youth work, a 'good' youth worker and the dimensions of positive youth worker-young person relationships is unclear. Because of this ambiguity, openings for critical reflection and disassembling of the subject (what Foucault considers as the epitome of being ethical) emerge.