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Surface mining for coal in the Appalachian region destroys native forests and replaces them with reclaimed landscapes that are often revegetated as grasslands and are unacceptable for managed forest production without extensive remediation. Tree survival and growth are dependent on many reclaimed mine land properties. However, conventional mapping techniques using USDA soil series does not identify these critical soil property differences. This study was conducted to create a forest site quality classification system to be used to evaluate the potential productivity of specific tree species on mine soils. High soil bulk density is the most common limitation on mine soils and methods to efficiently measure this property were evaluated. No valid quantitative method of measuring mine soil bulk density was found due to the high rock fragment content in the soil profile, but a method for estimating relative soil density class was developed. Other soil chemical and physical properties were analyzed at abandoned mine sites in Virginia, West Virginia, and Ohio. Mine soil properties differed throughout the Appalachian region, with Ohio sites having finer textures and less rock fragments, West Virginia sites having coarser textures and a high quantity of dark-colored shale, and Virginia sites dominated by sandstone rock types. Selected field-measured soil and site properties were regressed with site index (SI) base age 50 at 52 sample locations in 10- to 18-year old white pine (Pinus strobus L.) stands on reclaimed mine lands. Sufficiency curves for nine soil and site properties were produced and a general productivity index (PI) calculated. Regression of the general PI and measured SI of white pine produced an R2 of 0.61. The general PI was simplified to four soil properties (soil density, rooting depth, texture, and pH) most significantly related to the SI of white pine, and the properties were weighted based on their importance to white pine growth on mine soils. The modified PI model produced an R2 of 0.69 for a linear relationship between PI and measured SI. The SI values were divided into five classes of equal interval and the corresponding PI values were used to define five forest site quality classes that could be identified by measuring and mapping differences in the PI on older mine soils. The model may be modified for determination of hardwood productivity after validation sites are located. Soil and site properties that are correlated with seedling survival appear different than those properties important for tree productivity. The forest site quality classification system proposed here proved practical for mapping a selected mine site, and the maps may be used as a validation test after future reforestation. / Master of Science

Surface mining for coal in the Central Appalachians contributes total dissolved solids (TDS) to headwater streams, especially below larger mines and associated valley fills. My objective was to characterize the geochemical properties of a range of surface soils and associated geologic strata from the Central Appalachian coalfields and to relate those properties to simple field indicators, such as color or rock type. I hypothesized that these indicators can accurately predict certain geochemical properties. Thirty-three vertical weathering sequences were sampled from eight surface mines throughout the Central Appalachian coalfields, for a total of 204 individual samples. No differences were found among sites in overall saturated paste specific conductance (SC; used as a proxy for TDS) levels, but significant geochemical differences existed among samples. Sulfate release dominated SC levels, followed closely by Ca and Mg. Surficial soils and sandstones were yellowish-brown in color, high in citrate dithionite (CD) - extractable Al, Fe, and Mn, and low in SC, compared to underlying sandstones, shales, and mudstones, which were grayish to black, low in CD-extractable Al, Fe, and Mn, and significantly higher in SC. Saturated paste As and P were higher in A horizons, whereas Se was significantly higher in unweathered bedrock than in soil or weathered bedrock. Samples generating exothermic reactions with 30% H2O2 produced higher SC levels, sulfate, Mg, and Se. In conclusion, the mine spoils studied varied widely in geochemical properties. The simple field indicators presented here, such as color, weathering status, rock type, and H2O2 reaction can provide valuable guidance for identifying TDS risk which would greatly improve operator's ability to actively minimize TDS release. I recommend using soil and weathered, yellowish-brown sandstone layers as a source of low TDS spoil material whenever possible. The H2O2 field test is useful for identification of TDS and Se risk. Underlying unweathered bedrock layers should be treated as "potentially high TDS spoils". Particularly high risk spoils include gray to black mudstones and shales, coals, and coal associated shales, mudstones, and clays directly associated with coal seams. I recommend hydrologically isolating these spoils using techniques similar to those used historically for acid-forming materials. / Ph. D.

Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) receive a confluence of sewage containing antibiotics, antibiotic resistant bacteria, antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and pathogens, thus serving as key point of interest for the surveillance of antibiotic resistance (AR) dissemination. This thesis advances knowledge about the fate of AR indicators throughout treatment and reuse. The field study informs approaches for monitoring AR at a WWTP by characterizing the resistome (i.e., full profile of ARGs) and microbiome across eight sampling events via metagenomic sequencing, complemented by antibiotic data. The WWTP significantly reduced the total load of ARGs and antibiotics, although correlations between ARGs and antibiotics were generally weak. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction was applied to validate the quantitative capacity of metagenomics, whereby we found strong correlations. The influent and effluent to the WWTP were remarkably stable with time, providing further insight into the sampling frequency necessary for adequate surveillance. The laboratory study examined the effects of commonly applied disinfection processes (chlorination, chloramination, and ultraviolet irradiation [UV]) on the inactivation of antibiotic resistant pathogens and corresponding susceptible pathogens in recycled and potable water. Further, we evaluated their regrowth following disinfection by simulating distribution. Acinetobacter baumannii, an environmental opportunistic pathogen, regrew especially well following UV disinfection, although not when a disinfectant residual was present. Enterococcus faecium, a fecal pathogen, did not regrow following any disinfection process. There were no significant differences between water types. The findings of this study emphasize a need to move beyond the framework of assessing treatment efficacy based on the attenuation of fecal pathogens. / Master of Science / Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have traditionally been designed and further enhanced to minimize environmental contamination caused by solid waste, fecal pathogens, nutrients (e.g., nitrogen), and organic matter. However, treatment has not been optimized to remove the contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) investigated in this thesis: antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARB), antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), and antibiotics. WWTPs are key point of interest for local and global surveillance of antibiotic resistance as they can receive the aforementioned CECs (via human excretion or improper disposal) from various sources (e.g., residences, hospitals). Antibiotic resistant bacteria have caused 2.8 million infections and subsequently 35,000 deaths in the United States each year. Considering treated wastewater can serve as a route of exposure for humans, potential spread of antibiotic resistance by WWTPs is of high priority to mitigate from a public health perspective. In the first study utilizing a technology to assess the full complement of ARGs in a given sample, we observed that the total load of ARGs was removed by approximately 50% across wastewater treatment, on average; total antibiotic load exhibited a similar reduction. The second study demonstrated that antibiotic resistant environmental opportunistic pathogen (i.e., pathogens which take advantage of the "opportunity" to infect an immunocompromised host, especially thriving in low nutrient engineered systems), Acinetobacter baumannii, possesses the ability to regrow following disinfection in the absence of a disinfectant residual. In contrast, antibiotic resistant Enterococcus faecium, an opportunistic pathogen of fecal origin, was successfully inactivated and unable to regrow. The findings of this study emphasize a need to move beyond the framework of assessing treatment efficacy based on the attenuation of fecal pathogens.

The two most common options for post-mining land uses in the southern Appalachians are forestry or hayland/pasture. Hayland/pasture has become the predominant reclamation type due to ease of establishment and strict regulation standards requiring quick and dense erosion control by herbaceous cover. Recently, more landowners have become interested in returning mined land to an economically valuable post-mining land use, such as forestry. Landowners are becoming more aware of the possible future profits from timber stand harvests, as well as other benefits (monetary and aesthetic) derived from a forestry post-mining land use. Although hayland/pasture lands can provide economic returns through forage and grazing rents, many post-mining pasture lands are left fallow, with no economic returns being gained. Current research has provided the biological and technical information needed to reclaim mine lands to productive forest stands and achieve bond release. Cost information though has been lacking, or variable at best. The purpose of this study is to understand the processes of reclamation for both forestry and hayland/pasture, and calculate detailed cost estimates for both reclamation types. Total costs of reclamation are determined using a cost engineering method, in conjunction with Office of Surface Mining Regulation and Enforcement bond calculation worksheets. In Kentucky, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia, hayland/pasture reclamation is more costly on a per acre basis. The cost of hayland/pasture reclamation is greater than the cost of forestry reclamation by $140 per acre to $350 per acre. In Ohio, forestry reclamation is more expensive by nearly $60 per acre. Grading costs are four times as costly for hayland/pasture reclamation, as compared to forestry reclamation. Pasture reclamation requires more grading passes to prepare the seedbed, requiring four passes. Forestry reclamation typically involves only grading the site with one dozer pass to prevent compaction of minesoils which inhibits tree growth. Hyrdoseeding costs are also higher for hayland/pasture reclamation due to higher application rates of fertilizer and herbaceous seed. The hydroseeding costs make up the largest percentage of the total per acre cost for both forestry and hayland/pasture reclamation. Lime and mulch costs are equal for both reclamation types and are included in the hydroseeding equation. Due to the increased grading costs and higher hydroseeding costs, hayland/pasture reclamation is more expensive for all states analyzed in the Appalachians, other than Ohio. These cost estimates can provide useful tools for mine operators and landowners to determine the most economical and suitable post-mining land use for their individual property. / Master of Science

published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management

Chan Man Pik. / "Architecture Department, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Master of Architecture Programme 2004-2005, design report." / Thesis outline statement --- p.p1 / Site study - proposed government scheme --- p.p2-p6 / Site study - site analysis --- p.p7-p23 / Site study - historic corridor --- p.p24-p34 / Precedent studies --- p.p35-p44 / Design intervention --- p.p45-p55 / Model photo --- p.p56-p62 / Appendix

Thesis (M. L. A.)--University of Hong Kong, 2007. / Title proper from title frame. Includes special report study entitled :Natural water-land edge construction. Also available in printed format.

Thesis (M.U.D.)--University of Hong Kong, 1994. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 92-94).

Reclamation plays an important role in land supply of Hong Kong in various parts of territory to meet the demand for business, housing, infrastructural facilities, and ever increasing populations. Since 1852, Hong Kong has successfully expanded 6,824 hectares of the land since the first reclamation project, with about 6% of land in Hong Kong came from reclamation. Major reclamation projects in Hong Kong included Victoria Harbour Reclamation, Hong Kong International Airport Core Development Programme, and the present largest infrastructural facilities Hong Kong-Zhuhai-Macau Bridge. The government policy for reclamation in the colonial period was regarded as executive-led and lack of public participation. The situation has a significant change after the resumption of sovereignty by China in 1997. Public engagement, such as district forum has been the usual practice for the government to involve the public in reclamation and planning projects. Environmental issues brought by reclamation include the release of contaminants from dredging process, disruption of marine environment and ecosystem, polluting the surrounding water and air, and irreversible damage on the coastline and harbour. The study aims at (1)examining the reason for Hong Kong being so dependent on reclaiming land to increase the land supply for development; and the policy making and implementation process in the Hong Kong Government before and after 1997 in face of the changing political environment;(2) describing the major reclamation projects in the Hong Kong history; (3) studying the environmental impact brought by reclamation in Hong Kong and the related law and governing ordinances; and (4) suggesting alternative ways to increase the land supply in Hong Kong in the near future under the concept of sustainable development. It is concluded that reclamation will still be the easiest option adopted by the government to obtain land resources outside the Victoria Harbour. Community- based urban planning should be continued in land use planning policy for allowing people to engage in the process so that harmonious and sustainability can be achieved. / published_or_final_version / Environmental Management / Master / Master of Science in Environmental Management