Doctor of Philosophy / Department of History / Marsha L. Frey / Donald J. Mrozek / Jesuits presented evidence in both French and Chinese to defend Christianity by citation of legal and historical precedents in favor of the "Teaching of the Lord of Heaven" (Catholicism) even after the Yongzheng Emperor's 1724 imperial edict proscribed the religion as a heterodox cult. The Jesuits' strategy is traceable to Matteo Ricci's early missionary approach of accommodation to Chinese culture, which aimed to prove grounds for a Confucian-Christian synthesis based upon complementary points between Christian theology and their interpretation of Yuanru (Original Literati Teaching). Their synthesis involved both written and oral rhetorical techniques that ranged from attempts to show compatibility between different religious values, to the manipulation of texts, and to outright deceit. Personal witness, observation, and interpretation played a key role in Jesuit group translation projects. French and Chinese apologetic texts composed to prove grounds for the repeal of the 1724 proscription edict contain these approaches. The Lettres edifantes et curieuses ecrite par des missionnaires jesuites (1702-1776) contain examples of this approach, as well as the Ruijianlu (1735-1737). Memorials in the Ruijianlu cited favorable legal precedents and imperial patronage rendered to Xiyangren (Men from the West). Jesuits presented their case for toleration of Christianity in the Ruijianlu in terms of Chinese notions of hospitality, diplomacy, and defense found in texts from as early as the Zhou dynasty. They cited an enduring Chinese defensive notion of "welcoming men from afar" (rouyuanren), but the court refused to return to this soft policy. The Qianlong Emperor rejected the Kangxi era policy of "welcoming men from afar" regarding established missions. In 1735 the imperial Board of Punishments re-enforced the proscription order against Christianity in military units and also ruled that baptism of abandoned infants by a Chinese convert constituted religious heterodoxy based on the Qing Code (Article 162). The twenty-one Jesuits (not expelled in 1724) remained in imperial service and at liberty to practice their religion among themselves. Officials pursued a severe policy of punishing any cult deemed heterodox according to statutes of the Code. Persecution of Christians increased throughout the eighteenth century, but abated during the reign of the Daoguang Emperor (1821-1851) when most anti-Christian edicts were rescinded and a subsequent imperial edict pardoned those Christians who practiced the faith for moral perfection.

The Seventh-day Adventist Church, incorporated in the United States in 1863, was driven by the belief that it was God's 'remnant church' with the work of warning the world of the imminent return of Christ. When that mission was finished the second coming would occur. In 1886 following a visit by an elderly layman, John I Tay, the whole population of Pitcairn Island desired to join the SDA church. As a result in 1890 Adventist mission work began in the South Pacific Islands. By 1895 missions had been founded in six island groups. However difficulties, both within and without the mission's control, ensured that membership gains were painfully slow in the first decades of Adventist mission in Polynesia. However before World War II the Solomons became one of the most successful Adventist mission areas in the world. After 1945 Adventism also prospered in such places as Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Education provided the key to the gaining of accessions in a number of countries, while in others a health-medical emphasis proved important in attracting converts. Since World War II public evangelism and the use of various programmes such as welfare, radio evangelism, and the efforts of lay members contributed to sharp membership gains in most countries of the region. Of no small consequence in hindering Adventist growth was the opposition of other churches who regarded them as pariahs because of their theology and 'proselytizing'. Adventist communities tended to be introverted, esoteric and isolationist. Nevertheless Pacific islanders adapted aspects of the usually uncompromising Adventist culture. Unity of faith, practice and procedure was a valuable Adventist asset which was promoted by a centralized administration. After a century in the Pacific region its membership there has a reputation among other Adventists for its continued numeric growth and for the ferver its committment to Adventism. Nevertheless Adventism in the region faces a number of problems and its aim of finishing the Lord's work remains unfinished. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations

The Seventh-day Adventist Church, incorporated in the United States in 1863, was driven by the belief that it was God's 'remnant church' with the work of warning the world of the imminent return of Christ. When that mission was finished the second coming would occur. In 1886 following a visit by an elderly layman, John I Tay, the whole population of Pitcairn Island desired to join the SDA church. As a result in 1890 Adventist mission work began in the South Pacific Islands. By 1895 missions had been founded in six island groups. However difficulties, both within and without the mission's control, ensured that membership gains were painfully slow in the first decades of Adventist mission in Polynesia. However before World War II the Solomons became one of the most successful Adventist mission areas in the world. After 1945 Adventism also prospered in such places as Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Education provided the key to the gaining of accessions in a number of countries, while in others a health-medical emphasis proved important in attracting converts. Since World War II public evangelism and the use of various programmes such as welfare, radio evangelism, and the efforts of lay members contributed to sharp membership gains in most countries of the region. Of no small consequence in hindering Adventist growth was the opposition of other churches who regarded them as pariahs because of their theology and 'proselytizing'. Adventist communities tended to be introverted, esoteric and isolationist. Nevertheless Pacific islanders adapted aspects of the usually uncompromising Adventist culture. Unity of faith, practice and procedure was a valuable Adventist asset which was promoted by a centralized administration. After a century in the Pacific region its membership there has a reputation among other Adventists for its continued numeric growth and for the ferver its committment to Adventism. Nevertheless Adventism in the region faces a number of problems and its aim of finishing the Lord's work remains unfinished. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations

The Seventh-day Adventist Church, incorporated in the United States in 1863, was driven by the belief that it was God's 'remnant church' with the work of warning the world of the imminent return of Christ. When that mission was finished the second coming would occur. In 1886 following a visit by an elderly layman, John I Tay, the whole population of Pitcairn Island desired to join the SDA church. As a result in 1890 Adventist mission work began in the South Pacific Islands. By 1895 missions had been founded in six island groups. However difficulties, both within and without the mission's control, ensured that membership gains were painfully slow in the first decades of Adventist mission in Polynesia. However before World War II the Solomons became one of the most successful Adventist mission areas in the world. After 1945 Adventism also prospered in such places as Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Education provided the key to the gaining of accessions in a number of countries, while in others a health-medical emphasis proved important in attracting converts. Since World War II public evangelism and the use of various programmes such as welfare, radio evangelism, and the efforts of lay members contributed to sharp membership gains in most countries of the region. Of no small consequence in hindering Adventist growth was the opposition of other churches who regarded them as pariahs because of their theology and 'proselytizing'. Adventist communities tended to be introverted, esoteric and isolationist. Nevertheless Pacific islanders adapted aspects of the usually uncompromising Adventist culture. Unity of faith, practice and procedure was a valuable Adventist asset which was promoted by a centralized administration. After a century in the Pacific region its membership there has a reputation among other Adventists for its continued numeric growth and for the ferver its committment to Adventism. Nevertheless Adventism in the region faces a number of problems and its aim of finishing the Lord's work remains unfinished. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations

The Seventh-day Adventist Church, incorporated in the United States in 1863, was driven by the belief that it was God's 'remnant church' with the work of warning the world of the imminent return of Christ. When that mission was finished the second coming would occur. In 1886 following a visit by an elderly layman, John I Tay, the whole population of Pitcairn Island desired to join the SDA church. As a result in 1890 Adventist mission work began in the South Pacific Islands. By 1895 missions had been founded in six island groups. However difficulties, both within and without the mission's control, ensured that membership gains were painfully slow in the first decades of Adventist mission in Polynesia. However before World War II the Solomons became one of the most successful Adventist mission areas in the world. After 1945 Adventism also prospered in such places as Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Education provided the key to the gaining of accessions in a number of countries, while in others a health-medical emphasis proved important in attracting converts. Since World War II public evangelism and the use of various programmes such as welfare, radio evangelism, and the efforts of lay members contributed to sharp membership gains in most countries of the region. Of no small consequence in hindering Adventist growth was the opposition of other churches who regarded them as pariahs because of their theology and 'proselytizing'. Adventist communities tended to be introverted, esoteric and isolationist. Nevertheless Pacific islanders adapted aspects of the usually uncompromising Adventist culture. Unity of faith, practice and procedure was a valuable Adventist asset which was promoted by a centralized administration. After a century in the Pacific region its membership there has a reputation among other Adventists for its continued numeric growth and for the ferver its committment to Adventism. Nevertheless Adventism in the region faces a number of problems and its aim of finishing the Lord's work remains unfinished. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations

The Seventh-day Adventist Church, incorporated in the United States in 1863, was driven by the belief that it was God's 'remnant church' with the work of warning the world of the imminent return of Christ. When that mission was finished the second coming would occur. In 1886 following a visit by an elderly layman, John I Tay, the whole population of Pitcairn Island desired to join the SDA church. As a result in 1890 Adventist mission work began in the South Pacific Islands. By 1895 missions had been founded in six island groups. However difficulties, both within and without the mission's control, ensured that membership gains were painfully slow in the first decades of Adventist mission in Polynesia. However before World War II the Solomons became one of the most successful Adventist mission areas in the world. After 1945 Adventism also prospered in such places as Fiji, Samoa and Tonga. Education provided the key to the gaining of accessions in a number of countries, while in others a health-medical emphasis proved important in attracting converts. Since World War II public evangelism and the use of various programmes such as welfare, radio evangelism, and the efforts of lay members contributed to sharp membership gains in most countries of the region. Of no small consequence in hindering Adventist growth was the opposition of other churches who regarded them as pariahs because of their theology and 'proselytizing'. Adventist communities tended to be introverted, esoteric and isolationist. Nevertheless Pacific islanders adapted aspects of the usually uncompromising Adventist culture. Unity of faith, practice and procedure was a valuable Adventist asset which was promoted by a centralized administration. After a century in the Pacific region its membership there has a reputation among other Adventists for its continued numeric growth and for the ferver its committment to Adventism. Nevertheless Adventism in the region faces a number of problems and its aim of finishing the Lord's work remains unfinished. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations