O presente trabalho descreve o procedimento experimental do método de purificação do sal de Triiodeto de Bismuto (BiI3), visando uma futura aplicação destes em cristais semicondutores, como detector de radiação à temperatura ambiente. A técnica de Bridgman Vertical Repetido foi aplicada para a purificação e crescimento de BiI3, baseada na teoria da fusão e o fenômeno de nucleação do material. Uma ampola preenchida com sal de BiI3, na quantidade máxima de 25% do seu volume interno, foi posicionada no interior do forno de Bridgman Vertical e verticalmente deslocada à uma velocidade de 2 milímetros por hora dentro do forno programado obedecendo um perfil térmico e gradiente de temperatura, com uma temperatura máxima de 530°C, estabelecidos neste trabalho. A redução de impurezas no BiI3, para cada purificação, foi analisada por Análise por Ativação Neutrônica Instrumental (AANI), para a verificação da eficiência do técnica de purificação estabelecida neste trabalho, para impurezas de metais traço, presente na matéria prima do cristal Foi demonstrado que a técnica de Bridgman Repetido é eficiente para a redução da concentração de diversas impurezas, como Ag, As, Br, Cr, K, Mo, Na, e Sb. As estruturas cristalinas nos cristais purificados duas e três vezes apresentou similaridade com o padrão do BiI3. No entanto, para o sal de partida e cristal purificado somente uma vez foi observado a contribuição de intensidade BiOI (Oxido de Iodeto de Bismuto) similar ao padrão observada no seu difratograma. É conhecido que detectores semicondutores fabricados a partir de cristais com alta pureza exibem uma melhora significativa no seu desempenho, comparado com os cristais produzidos com cristais de baixa pureza. / This study describes the experimental procedure of a BiI3 purification method powder, aiming a future application of these semiconductor crystals as room temperature radiation detector. The Repeated Vertical Bridgman Technique was applied for the purification, based on the melting and nucleation phenomena. An ampoule filled with a maximum of 25% by volume of BiI3 powder was mounted into the Bridgman furnace and vertically moved at a speed of 2 millimeters per hour, inside the furnace with programmed thermal gradient and temperature profile, at a temperature maximum of 530ºC. The reduction of the impurities in the BiI3, each purification, was analysed by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA), in order to evaluate the efficiency of the purification technique established in this work, for trace metal impurities. It was demonstrated that the Repeated Bridgman is effective to reduce the concentration of many impurities in BiI3, such as Ag, As, Br, Cr, K, Mo, Na and Sb. The crystalline structure of the BiI3 crystal purified twice and third times was similar to the BiI3 pattern. However, for BiI3 powder and purified once an intensity contribution of the BiOI was observed in the diffractograms. It is known that semiconductor detectors fabricated from high purity crystal exhibit significant improvement in their performance compared to those produced from low purity crystals.

Neste trabalho, os cristais de TlBr foram crescidos pelo método de Bridgman, a partir de materiais purificados pela técnica de fusão zonal. A eficiência da purificação e avaliação da superfície cristalina em relação ao desempenho como detectores de radiação foi observada. Bons resultados foram obtidos com os aprimoramentos realizados nos processos de purificação, crescimento de cristais e na fabricação dos detectores. A resposta à radiação foi verificada excitando os detectores com fontes de raios gama: 241Am (59 keV), 133Ba (80 e 355 keV), 57Co (122 keV), 22Na (511 keV) e 137Cs (662 keV) à temperatura ambiente. Os valores de resolução em energia mais satisfatórios encontrados nesse trabalho foram a partir de detectores mais puros. Os melhores valores de resolução em energia obtidos foram de 10keV (16%), 12keV (15%), 12keV (10%), 28 keV (8%), 31keV (6%) e 36keV (5%) para as energias de 59, 80, 122, 355, 511 e 662 keV, respectivamente. Também foi realizado um estudo da resposta à detecção a uma temperatura de -20ºC e da estabilidade desses detectores. Nos detectores desenvolvidos não houve diferença significativa na resolução tanto em temperatura ambiente quanto na reduzida. Em relação à estabilidade foi observada uma degradação das características espectrométricas sob operação contínua do detector a temperatura ambiente e esta instabilidade variou para cada detector. Ambas características também foram observadas por outros autores. A viabilidade de utilização do cristal de TlBr como fotodetector para acoplamento em cintiladores também foi estudada neste trabalho. TlBr é um material promissor para ser utilizado como fotodetector devido a sua adequada eficiência quântica na região de 350 a aproximadamente 500 nm. Como uma aplicação para este trabalho foram iniciados estudos para fabricação de sondas cirúrgicas utilizando cristais de TlBr como o meio detector. / In this work, TlBr crystals were grown by the Bridgman method from zone melted materials. The influence of the purification efficiency and the crystalline surface quality on the crystal were studied, evaluating its performance as a radiation detector. Due to significant improvement in the purification and crystals growth, good results have been obtained for the developed detectors. The spectrometric performance of the TlBr detector was evaluated by 241Am (59 keV), 133Ba (80 e 355 keV), 57Co (122 keV), 22Na (511 keV) and 137Cs (662 keV) at room temperature. The best energy resolution results were obtained from purer detectors. Energy resolutions of 10keV (16%), 12keV (15%), 12keV (10%), 28keV (8%), 31keV (6%) and 36keV (5%) to 59, 80, 122, 355, 511 and 662 keV energies, respectively, were obtained. A study on the detection response at -20ºC was also carried out, as well as the detector stability in function of the time. No significant difference was observed in the energy resolution between measurements at both temperatures. It was observed that the detector instability causes degradation of the spectroscopic characteristics during measurements at room temperature and the instability varies for each detector. This behavior was also verified by other authors. The viability to use the developed TlBr crystal as a photodetector coupled to scintillators crystals was also studied in this work. Due to its quantum efficiency in the region from 350 to 500 nm, TlBr shows to be a promising material to be used as a photodetector. As a possible application of this work, the development of a surgical probe has been initiated using the developed TlBr crystal as the radiation detector of the probe.

O presente trabalho descreve o procedimento experimental do método de purificação do sal de Triiodeto de Bismuto (BiI3), visando uma futura aplicação destes em cristais semicondutores, como detector de radiação à temperatura ambiente. A técnica de Bridgman Vertical Repetido foi aplicada para a purificação e crescimento de BiI3, baseada na teoria da fusão e o fenômeno de nucleação do material. Uma ampola preenchida com sal de BiI3, na quantidade máxima de 25% do seu volume interno, foi posicionada no interior do forno de Bridgman Vertical e verticalmente deslocada à uma velocidade de 2 milímetros por hora dentro do forno programado obedecendo um perfil térmico e gradiente de temperatura, com uma temperatura máxima de 530°C, estabelecidos neste trabalho. A redução de impurezas no BiI3, para cada purificação, foi analisada por Análise por Ativação Neutrônica Instrumental (AANI), para a verificação da eficiência do técnica de purificação estabelecida neste trabalho, para impurezas de metais traço, presente na matéria prima do cristal Foi demonstrado que a técnica de Bridgman Repetido é eficiente para a redução da concentração de diversas impurezas, como Ag, As, Br, Cr, K, Mo, Na, e Sb. As estruturas cristalinas nos cristais purificados duas e três vezes apresentou similaridade com o padrão do BiI3. No entanto, para o sal de partida e cristal purificado somente uma vez foi observado a contribuição de intensidade BiOI (Oxido de Iodeto de Bismuto) similar ao padrão observada no seu difratograma. É conhecido que detectores semicondutores fabricados a partir de cristais com alta pureza exibem uma melhora significativa no seu desempenho, comparado com os cristais produzidos com cristais de baixa pureza. / This study describes the experimental procedure of a BiI3 purification method powder, aiming a future application of these semiconductor crystals as room temperature radiation detector. The Repeated Vertical Bridgman Technique was applied for the purification, based on the melting and nucleation phenomena. An ampoule filled with a maximum of 25% by volume of BiI3 powder was mounted into the Bridgman furnace and vertically moved at a speed of 2 millimeters per hour, inside the furnace with programmed thermal gradient and temperature profile, at a temperature maximum of 530ºC. The reduction of the impurities in the BiI3, each purification, was analysed by Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA), in order to evaluate the efficiency of the purification technique established in this work, for trace metal impurities. It was demonstrated that the Repeated Bridgman is effective to reduce the concentration of many impurities in BiI3, such as Ag, As, Br, Cr, K, Mo, Na and Sb. The crystalline structure of the BiI3 crystal purified twice and third times was similar to the BiI3 pattern. However, for BiI3 powder and purified once an intensity contribution of the BiOI was observed in the diffractograms. It is known that semiconductor detectors fabricated from high purity crystal exhibit significant improvement in their performance compared to those produced from low purity crystals.

Neste trabalho, os cristais de TlBr foram crescidos pelo método de Bridgman, a partir de materiais purificados pela técnica de fusão zonal. A eficiência da purificação e avaliação da superfície cristalina em relação ao desempenho como detectores de radiação foi observada. Bons resultados foram obtidos com os aprimoramentos realizados nos processos de purificação, crescimento de cristais e na fabricação dos detectores. A resposta à radiação foi verificada excitando os detectores com fontes de raios gama: 241Am (59 keV), 133Ba (80 e 355 keV), 57Co (122 keV), 22Na (511 keV) e 137Cs (662 keV) à temperatura ambiente. Os valores de resolução em energia mais satisfatórios encontrados nesse trabalho foram a partir de detectores mais puros. Os melhores valores de resolução em energia obtidos foram de 10keV (16%), 12keV (15%), 12keV (10%), 28 keV (8%), 31keV (6%) e 36keV (5%) para as energias de 59, 80, 122, 355, 511 e 662 keV, respectivamente. Também foi realizado um estudo da resposta à detecção a uma temperatura de -20ºC e da estabilidade desses detectores. Nos detectores desenvolvidos não houve diferença significativa na resolução tanto em temperatura ambiente quanto na reduzida. Em relação à estabilidade foi observada uma degradação das características espectrométricas sob operação contínua do detector a temperatura ambiente e esta instabilidade variou para cada detector. Ambas características também foram observadas por outros autores. A viabilidade de utilização do cristal de TlBr como fotodetector para acoplamento em cintiladores também foi estudada neste trabalho. TlBr é um material promissor para ser utilizado como fotodetector devido a sua adequada eficiência quântica na região de 350 a aproximadamente 500 nm. Como uma aplicação para este trabalho foram iniciados estudos para fabricação de sondas cirúrgicas utilizando cristais de TlBr como o meio detector. / In this work, TlBr crystals were grown by the Bridgman method from zone melted materials. The influence of the purification efficiency and the crystalline surface quality on the crystal were studied, evaluating its performance as a radiation detector. Due to significant improvement in the purification and crystals growth, good results have been obtained for the developed detectors. The spectrometric performance of the TlBr detector was evaluated by 241Am (59 keV), 133Ba (80 e 355 keV), 57Co (122 keV), 22Na (511 keV) and 137Cs (662 keV) at room temperature. The best energy resolution results were obtained from purer detectors. Energy resolutions of 10keV (16%), 12keV (15%), 12keV (10%), 28keV (8%), 31keV (6%) and 36keV (5%) to 59, 80, 122, 355, 511 and 662 keV energies, respectively, were obtained. A study on the detection response at -20ºC was also carried out, as well as the detector stability in function of the time. No significant difference was observed in the energy resolution between measurements at both temperatures. It was observed that the detector instability causes degradation of the spectroscopic characteristics during measurements at room temperature and the instability varies for each detector. This behavior was also verified by other authors. The viability to use the developed TlBr crystal as a photodetector coupled to scintillators crystals was also studied in this work. Due to its quantum efficiency in the region from 350 to 500 nm, TlBr shows to be a promising material to be used as a photodetector. As a possible application of this work, the development of a surgical probe has been initiated using the developed TlBr crystal as the radiation detector of the probe.

<p>The energy dependent response of silicon diodes in photon beams is a known problem. A new approach to solve this problem is by correcting the response, a response model was suggested by Yin et al. (2002, 2004), and later refined by Eklund and Ahnesjö (2009). In this work a prototype software was developed to calculate correction factors for arbitrary measurement points in MLC shaped fields using fluence pencil beam kernels to calculate the spectra used by the model of Eklund and Ahnesjö (2009). This work investigate this approach for large field sizes. It was found that the relative dose measurements of the corrected unshielded diode agreed with ionization chamber measurements within 1% at the central axis. Measurements made off axis (square and irregular fields) agreed within 2%, better results were achieved within the fields when the off axis beam softening were taken into consideration. This work has also shown that this new approach is an alternitive to shielded diodes and that corrected diodes will in some cases provide more reliable results.</p>

The energy dependent response of silicon diodes in photon beams is a known problem. A new approach to solve this problem is by correcting the response, a response model was suggested by Yin et al. (2002, 2004), and later refined by Eklund and Ahnesjö (2009). In this work a prototype software was developed to calculate correction factors for arbitrary measurement points in MLC shaped fields using fluence pencil beam kernels to calculate the spectra used by the model of Eklund and Ahnesjö (2009). This work investigate this approach for large field sizes. It was found that the relative dose measurements of the corrected unshielded diode agreed with ionization chamber measurements within 1% at the central axis. Measurements made off axis (square and irregular fields) agreed within 2%, better results were achieved within the fields when the off axis beam softening were taken into consideration. This work has also shown that this new approach is an alternitive to shielded diodes and that corrected diodes will in some cases provide more reliable results.

Submitted by Marco Antonio Oliveira da Silva (maosilva@ipen.br) on 2016-08-26T10:48:20Z No. of bitstreams: 0 / Made available in DSpace on 2016-08-26T10:48:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 / O presente trabalho descreve o procedimento experimental do método de purificação do sal de Triiodeto de Bismuto (BiI3), visando uma futura aplicação destes em cristais semicondutores, como detector de radiação à temperatura ambiente. A técnica de Bridgman Vertical Repetido foi aplicada para a purificação e crescimento de BiI3, baseada na teoria da fusão e o fenômeno de nucleação do material. Uma ampola preenchida com sal de BiI3, na quantidade máxima de 25% do seu volume interno, foi posicionada no interior do forno de Bridgman Vertical e verticalmente deslocada à uma velocidade de 2 milímetros por hora dentro do forno programado obedecendo um perfil térmico e gradiente de temperatura, com uma temperatura máxima de 530°C, estabelecidos neste trabalho. A redução de impurezas no BiI3, para cada purificação, foi analisada por Análise por Ativação Neutrônica Instrumental (AANI), para a verificação da eficiência do técnica de purificação estabelecida neste trabalho, para impurezas de metais traço, presente na matéria prima do cristal Foi demonstrado que a técnica de Bridgman Repetido é eficiente para a redução da concentração de diversas impurezas, como Ag, As, Br, Cr, K, Mo, Na, e Sb. As estruturas cristalinas nos cristais purificados duas e três vezes apresentou similaridade com o padrão do BiI3. No entanto, para o sal de partida e cristal purificado somente uma vez foi observado a contribuição de intensidade BiOI (Oxido de Iodeto de Bismuto) similar ao padrão observada no seu difratograma. É conhecido que detectores semicondutores fabricados a partir de cristais com alta pureza exibem uma melhora significativa no seu desempenho, comparado com os cristais produzidos com cristais de baixa pureza. / Dissertação (Mestrado em Tecnologia Nuclear) / IPEN/D / Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares - IPEN-CNEN/SP

Master of Science / Department of Mechanical and Nuclear Engineering / J. Kenneth Shultis / Perforated neutron detectors suffer the unfortunate effect that their efficiency is a strong function of the direction of neutron incidence. It is found, by Monte Carlo simulation of many perforation shapes, that sinusoidal-type perforations greatly reduce the variation of detector efficiency. Detectors with rod-type perforations are modeled using a hybrid transport method linking the MCNP transport code and a specialized ion-transport code to calculate the probability that a neutron is detected. Channel, chevron, and sinusoidal perforations are modeled using other customized transport codes. Detector efficiency calculations are performed for neutrons incident at various polar and azimuthal angles. It is discovered that the efficiency losses of the detectors result from the decreasing solid angle subtended by the detector from the source and streaming through the detector at specific azimuthal angles. Detectors achieving an efficiency in excess of 10% and having a relatively flat ± 1% angular dependence in all azimuthal angles and polar angles between 0 and 60 degrees are predicted. Efficiencies up to 25% are achievable at the loss of directional independence. In addition to minimizing the directional dependence of the perforated detectors, the feasibility of developing a neutron detector for deployment in cargo containers to locate nuclear weapon pits is investigated using the MCNP transport code. The detector considered is a 7-mm diameter, 6LiF, rod-perforated detector surrounded in a cylinder of polyethylene. The optimum thicknesses of surrounding polyethylene, to maximize the response of the detector, is determined to be 10 cm of radial, 5 cm of front, and 5 cm of back polyethylene for end-on neutron incidence. Such a detector is predicted to produce a count rate between 12 and 15 cpm from a nuclear-weapon pit composed of 90% 239Pu and 10% 240Pu at a distance of 3 m. Side incidence is also considered, and the optimum moderator dimensions are 8 cm of radial, 10 cm of front, and 10 cm of back polyethylene that produce approximately the same count rate.

After ten years of massive success, the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN is going for an upgrade to the next phase, The High Luminosity Large Hadron Collider (HL-LHC) which is planned to start its operation in 2029. This is expected to have a fine boost to its performance, with an instantaneous luminosity of 5.0×1034 cm-2s -1 (ultimate value 7.5×1034 cm-2s -1 ) with 200 average interactions per bunch crossing which will increase the fluences up to more than 1016 neq/ cm2 , resulting in high radiation damage in ATLAS detector. To withstand this situation, it was proposed to make the innermost layer with 3D silicon sensors, which will have radiation tolerance up to 2×1016 neq/cm2 with a Total Ionization Dose of 9.9 MGy. Two-pixel geometries have been selected for 3D sensors, 50 × 50 μm2 for Endcap (ring), which will be produced by FBK (Italy) and SINTEF (Norway), and 25 × 100 μm2 for Barrel (stave), will be produced by CNM (Spain). A discussion is made in this thesis about the production of FBK on both geometries, as they have made a breakthrough with their Stepper lithography process. The yield improved, specifically for the geometry 25 × 100 μm2 with two electrode readouts, which was problematic in the mask aligner approach. Their sensors were characterized electrically at waferlevel as well as after integration with RD53a readout chip (RoC) on single-chip cards (SCC) and were verified against Innermost Tracker criteria. The SCCs were sent for irradiation up to 1×1016 neq/cm2 and were tested under electron test beam, and a hit efficiency of 97% was presented. Some more SCCs have been sent to Los Alamos for irradiating them up to 1.5×1016 neq/cm2 fluence. As the 3D sensors will be mounted as Triplets, a discussion is also made on their assembly and QA/QC process. A reception testing and electrical testing setup both at room temperature and the cold temperature was made and discussed, with results from some early RD53a RoC-based triplets. The pre-production sensors are already evaluated, and soon they will be available bump-bonded with ITkPixV1 RoC for further testing.

The Thermal Radiation Group at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University has been working closely with scientists and engineers at NASA's Langley Research Center to develop accurate analytical and numerical models suitable for designing next-generation thin-film thermal radiation detectors for earth radiation budget measurement applications. The current study provides an analytical model of the notional thermal radiation detector that takes into account thermal transport phenomena, such as the contact resistance between the layers of the detector, and is suitable for use in parameter estimation. It was found that the responsivity of the detector can increase significantly due to the presence of contact resistance between the layers of the detector. Also presented is the effect of doping the thermal impedance layer of the detector with conducting particles in order to electrically link the two junctions of the detector. It was found that the responsivity and the time response of the doped detector decrease significantly in this case. The corresponding decrease of the electrical resistance of the doped thermal impedance layer is not sufficient to significantly improve the electrical performance of the detector. Finally, the "roughness effect" is shown to be unable to explain the decrease in the thermal conductivity often reported for thin-film layers / Master of Science