Thesis advisor: Larry H. Ludlow / The focus on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics fields has noticeably increased in recent decades with the rapid growth in technology. Mathematical knowledge and competence is in many ways a gateway to scientific and technical development, and therefore careers (Prieto & Delgado, 2007). Unfortunately, national and international assessments of mathematics achievement (e.g., Kena et al., 2016; NCES, 2015; OECD, 2013) show that schools in the United States are not helping students achieve acceptable levels of mathematical and numerical proficiency. Therefore, we need to understand how various factors, including mathematics anxiety, affect student performance and persistence in STEM. To do this, a valid and reliable measure of mathematics anxiety is needed. Existing instruments to measure mathematics anxiety have been insufficient in several ways, including in their conceptualization of the construct and use of classical test theory over Rasch measurement theory methods.In this study, an instrument – the Comparative Mathematics Anxiety Scale (CMAS) – was developed to measure the three-dimensional conceptualization of mathematics anxiety that Dr. Caroline Vuilleumier and I originated. A unique, comparative item format adapted from Ludlow et al. (2014, 2019) and Rasch measurement theory (Rasch, 1960/1980) were utilized to mitigate some of the limitations of existing instruments. The overarching research question and three sub-research questions explored whether the CMAS could measure mathematics anxiety in a valid, reliable, and meaningful way. This study employed a seven-step iterative scale development process and was accomplished across three rounds. Ultimately, twenty-three third-person items were developed to capture the emotional-attitudinal, mental-cognitive, and physical-somatic dimensions of mathematics anxiety. Using the Rasch rating scale model, the outcome was the 23-item CMAS that reliably and validly measures increasing levels of three dimensions of mathematics anxiety. The distribution of the items mostly confirmed their hypothesized order and the Rasch measurement theory principles. The scale also provides meaningful interpretations of what a raw score means regarding a student’s experience of emotional-attitudinal, mental-cognitive, and physical-somatic mathematics anxiety. Overall, the findings suggest that the novel approach of combining Rasch measurement theory with third-person items and comparative response options can be successful in developing a scale that measures an important construct. Furthermore, the scale can provide the evidence needed in the provision of interventions and in research to reduce students’ overall experience of mathematics anxiety. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2021. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Research, Measurement and Evaluation.

Thesis advisor: Larry H. Ludlow / Interaction with faculty is one of the most important aspects of completing an undergraduate degree (Chambliss & Takacs, 2014). At traditional colleges and universities, much of this interaction takes place within the classroom. However, out-of-class communication (OCC) is also an important part of the college-going experience. Participation in OCC has been associated with many positive undergraduate outcomes, such as motivation (Komarraju et al., 2010) and course grades (Micari & Pazos, 2012). Prior measurement instruments related to OCC suffered from limitations with respect to construct definition and methodological procedures that limit the interpretability and utility of the scores they yield. My dissertation ameliorates these issues in constructing a new instrument that measures students’ perceptions of faculty availability outside of class. This instrument is built using Rasch/Guttman Scenario (RGS) scale methodology, which brings together the frameworks of Rasch measurement (Rasch, 1960/80) and Guttman facet theory design (Guttman, 1954; Guttman 1959). Two scales, each containing seven short scenarios that function as items, were constructed: the Physical Accessibility Scale (PAS) and the Social Engagement Scale (SES). Together, these two scales comprise the Out-of-Class Availability Scales (OCAS). Three facets of physical accessibility and social engagement are identified and represented within the items: arranged meetings, chance encounters, and email. The OCAS development process and analysis results presented within my dissertation suggest that the RGS methodology is useful for capturing students’ perceptions of faculty availability outside of class. The OCAS can also be used by others to conduct future research on the topic of OCC. Because they measure students’ perceptions of availability and not frequency of OCC, the OCAS have value as a potential faculty evaluation tool. Even if students choose not to interact with a particular faculty member outside of class, they would still ideally find that faculty member available for such interaction should the need arise. Finally, the RGS scale development process ensures that OCAS scores are accompanied by qualitative descriptions, which enhances their utility and measurement value. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2020. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Research, Measurement and Evaluation.

The domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, is a unique model system for the dissection of hereditary diseases. Selective breeding practices have created more than 300 distinct breeds of dogs, born from a desire to create specific physical and behavioral characteristics. Breeds represent closed breeding populations and the extensive records maintained for members of each breed (e.g., multi-generational pedigrees, veterinary medical records) present an incredible tool for genetic research. Two closed populations were used in the work presented here: a colony of mixed-breed dogs segregating resistance and sensitivity to cholesterol feeding, and a purebred pet population of Havanese experiencing a high frequency of developmental abnormalities. Estimates of heritability were calculated for each disease to evaluate the degree of phenotypic variation attributable to genetics among dogs in the populations used. A heritability of 0.55 (± 0.16) was identified for cholesterol resistance and sensitivity in the mixed-breed colony. The small sample size prevented the use of complex segregation analyses to examine mode of transmission. A heritability of 0.36 (± 0.26) was calculated for the composite phenotype in the Havanese, encompassing the spectrum of abnormalities in the breed. Polygenic inheritance was identified for the composite phenotype, but the action of a major gene was identified by complex segregation analyses in the Havanese. Complex diseases preclude the use of a candidate gene approach, owing to the multitude of genes involved in the disease process. Whole genome screens provide a practical approach to the identification of chromosomal region(s) associated with a disease phenotype by narrowing the search for candidate gene(s). The Minimal Screening Set – 2 (MSS-2) was used in the present studies to evaluate the segregation of microsatellite markers in pedigrees for both the mixed-breed colony and the Havanese. No significant LOD scores were identified, though suggestive LOD scores were obtained in both analyses. A canine-specific oligonucleotide microarray was used to create gene expression profiles for developmental abnormalities in the Havanese and for cholesterol sensitivity in the mixed-breed colony dogs. Distinct expression profiles were generated for each group, and several genes of interest were identified as being both differentially expressed (>±2-fold change) and statistically significant (p-value<0.05).

This research aims at revising the Victim Scale of the School Bullying Scales to examine bullying behaviors with high frequency and high severity. Participants were 1611 secondary school students in Kaohsiung. The Rasch Rating Scale Model was employed to analyze the collected data. Results showed that the revised Victim Scale fit well, exhibiting good evidence of the construct validity. Male students considered that victimized behaviors with high frequency and high severity were ¡§friendship being breached,¡¨ ¡§belongings being taken without permission,¡¨ ¡§goods being breached,¡¨ ¡§being tattled,¡¨ ¡§being hit or kicked,¡¨ and ¡§being neglected intentionally. Female students revealed different patterns of bullying behavior, while female students regard ¡§friendship being breached,¡¨ ¡§being crowded out of a group,¡¨ ¡§being isolation,¡¨ ¡§belongings being taken without permission,¡¨ ¡§being tattled,¡¨ ¡§being criticized online,¡¨ ¡§being neglected intentionally¡¨ and ¡§others kept silent to me on purpose¡¨ as victimized behaviors with high frequency and high severity. Finally, the implications for school bullying intervention and prevention were discussed. Keywords: school bullying, Rasch measurement, multidimensional Rasch analysis, DIF

The domestic dog, Canis lupus familiaris, is a unique model system for the dissection of hereditary diseases. Selective breeding practices have created more than 300 distinct breeds of dogs, born from a desire to create specific physical and behavioral characteristics. Breeds represent closed breeding populations and the extensive records maintained for members of each breed (e.g., multi-generational pedigrees, veterinary medical records) present an incredible tool for genetic research. Two closed populations were used in the work presented here: a colony of mixed-breed dogs segregating resistance and sensitivity to cholesterol feeding, and a purebred pet population of Havanese experiencing a high frequency of developmental abnormalities. Estimates of heritability were calculated for each disease to evaluate the degree of phenotypic variation attributable to genetics among dogs in the populations used. A heritability of 0.55 (± 0.16) was identified for cholesterol resistance and sensitivity in the mixed-breed colony. The small sample size prevented the use of complex segregation analyses to examine mode of transmission. A heritability of 0.36 (± 0.26) was calculated for the composite phenotype in the Havanese, encompassing the spectrum of abnormalities in the breed. Polygenic inheritance was identified for the composite phenotype, but the action of a major gene was identified by complex segregation analyses in the Havanese. Complex diseases preclude the use of a candidate gene approach, owing to the multitude of genes involved in the disease process. Whole genome screens provide a practical approach to the identification of chromosomal region(s) associated with a disease phenotype by narrowing the search for candidate gene(s). The Minimal Screening Set – 2 (MSS-2) was used in the present studies to evaluate the segregation of microsatellite markers in pedigrees for both the mixed-breed colony and the Havanese. No significant LOD scores were identified, though suggestive LOD scores were obtained in both analyses. A canine-specific oligonucleotide microarray was used to create gene expression profiles for developmental abnormalities in the Havanese and for cholesterol sensitivity in the mixed-breed colony dogs. Distinct expression profiles were generated for each group, and several genes of interest were identified as being both differentially expressed (>±2-fold change) and statistically significant (p-value<0.05).

The purpose of this study was to develop an instrument to measure the views of educational researchers across the dimensions that comprise research paradigms. The development of the instrument, entitled the Research Paradigm Inventory (RPI), was conducted in the hope of providing a mechanism for future research that will enable the examination of prospective links between the ontological, epistemological and methodological orientations of researchers and graduate students who will serve as future inquirers in the field of education. During its development and validation, various aspects of the RPI were examined in accordance with the validity framework outlined by Samuel Messick (1989). According to Messick (1989), the validity of measure interpretation and corresponding action can be examined in terms of content, substantive, structural, generalizability, external and consequential forms of evidence. During this study, the content aspect of validity was addressed through the creation of instrument specifications and the development of items that were mapped to those specifications. In addition, the content aspect of validity was addressed by selecting items that were reviewed by experts, pilot tested, field tested and exhibited high technical quality. The substantive aspect of validity was addressed through an analysis of item rating scale functioning, person fit, item difficulty hierarchies and relationships among instrument scale measures. The structural aspect of validity was addressed through a confirmation of the instrument's dimensionality. The generalizability aspect of validity was addressed through an analysis of person reliability, the precision of item/person parameter estimates and item calibration invariance. The development activities and analyses described above resulted in the creation of six subscales measuring: (1) Realism in Research, (2) Research Objectivism, (3) Quantitative Methodology, (4) Relativism in Research, (5) Research Interpretivism and (6) Qualitative Methodology. Given the evidence collected, these scales appear to provide reasonably reliable and defensible estimates of individuals' attitudes toward various research practices and beliefs, and should be appropriate for future research studies exploring educational research paradigms. / Ph. D.

Problem Statement: Nowadays, multiple choice (MC) tests are very common, and replace many constructed response (CR) tests. However, literature reveals that there is no consensus whether both test formats are equally suitable for measuring students' ability or knowledge. This might be due to the fact that neither the type of MC question nor the scoring rule used when comparing test formats are mentioned. Hence, educators do not have any guidelines which test format or scoring rule is appropriate. Purpose of Study: The study focuses on the comparison of CR and MC tests. More precisely, short answer questions are contrasted to equivalent MC questions with multiple responses which are graded with three different scoring rules. Research Methods: An experiment was conducted based on three instruments: A CR and a MC test using a similar stem to assure that the questions are of an equivalent level of difficulty. This procedure enables the comparison of the scores students gained in the two forms of examination. Additionally, a questionnaire was handed out for further insights into students' learning strategy, test preference, motivation, and demographics. In contrast to previous studies the present study applies the many-facet Rasch measurement approach for analyzing data which allows improving the reliability of an assessment and applying small datasets. Findings: Results indicate that CR tests are equal to MC tests with multiple responses if Number Correct (NC) scoring is used. An explanation seems straight forward since the grader of the CR tests did not penalize wrong answers and rewarded partially correct answers. This means that s/he uses the same logic as NC scoring. All other scoring methods such as the All or-Nothing or University-Specific rule neither reward partial knowledge nor penalize guessing. Therefore, these methods are found to be stricter than NC scoring or CR tests and cannot be used interchangeably. Conclusions: CR tests can be replaced by MC tests with multiple responses if NC scoring is used, due to the fact that the multiple response format measures more complex thinking skills than conventional MC questions. Hence, educators can take advantage of low grading costs, consistent grading, no scoring biases, and greater coverage of the syllabus while students benefit from timely feedback. (authors' abstract)

Thesis advisor: Laura M. O'Dwyer / The purpose of this study was to determine which of three competing models will provide, reliable, interpretable, and responsive measures of elementary students' understanding of the nature of science (NOS). The Nature of Science Instrument-Elementary (NOSI-E), a 28-item Rasch-based instrument, was used to assess students' NOS understanding. The NOS construct was conceptualized using five construct dimensions (Empirical, Inventive, Theory-laden, Certainty and Socially & Culturally Embedded). The competing models represent three internal models for the NOS construct. One postulate is that the NOS construct is unidimensional where one latent construct explains the relationship between the 28 items of the NOSI-E. Alternatively, the NOS construct is composed of five independent unidimensional constructs (the consecutive approach). Lastly, the NOS construct is multidimensional and composed of five inter-related but separate dimensions. A validity argument was developed that hypothesized that the internal structure of the NOS construct is best represented by the multidimensional Rasch model. Four sets of analyses were performed in which the three representations were compared. These analyses addressed five validity aspects (content, substantive, generalizability, structural and external) of construct validity. The vast body of evidence supported the claim that the NOS construct is composed of five separate but inter-related dimensions that is best represented by the multidimensional Rasch model. The results of the multidimensional analyses indicated that the items of the five subscales were of excellent technical quality, exhibited no differential item functioning (based on gender), had an item hierarchy that conformed to theoretical expectations; and together formed subscales of reasonable reliability (> 0.7 on each subscale) that were responsive to change in the construct Theory-laden scores from the multidimensional model predicted students' science achievement with scores from all five NOS dimensions significantly predicting students' perceptions of the constructivist nature of their classroom learning environment. The NOSI-E instrument is a theoretically grounded scale that can measure elementary students' NOS understanding and appears suitable for use in science education research. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2012. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation.

Thesis advisor: Larry H. Ludlow / Teacher preparation programs face an urgent call to prepare high-quality and "highly qualified" teachers who teach all students in an increasingly culturally, racially, ethnically, and linguistically diverse student population, and who work toward closing the achievement gap that separates students along these demographic lines. In response, and as part of the current accountability context, there has been greater focus on outcomes in teacher education. Along different lines, also in response to these challenges, there has been an increase in social justice-oriented teacher preparation programs. This dissertation operates within both of these contexts. Specifically, this dissertation examines one of the many outcomes of teacher education for social justice: teacher candidates' changing beliefs about teaching for social justice and the factors that may or may not be related to their change. Using primarily Rasch rating scale and multiple regression analyses, this dissertation examines longitudinal survey data from two cohorts of undergraduate teacher candidates (N=134) who completed the same social justice-oriented teacher education program. By investigating two cohorts of teacher candidates at the time of entry into the teacher education program and again when they graduated four years later, this study investigated individuals in the aggregate, variability within and across cohorts, and change across time. In addition, this research sought to untangle and identify whether reported experiences and perceptions before and during formal teacher education are related to beliefs about and commitment to teaching for social justice. Findings suggest that from the time of entry to graduation, candidates' beliefs about teaching for social justice were significantly more aligned with the concepts and principles endorsed by the teacher preparation program. Additionally, at particular points in time and across time, there were identifiable perceptions and experiences related to their beliefs about teaching for social justice. In particular, the location of the student teaching experience and candidates' perceptions of their teacher education faculty were significant predictors of their beliefs about teaching for social justice. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2011. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation.

Thesis advisor: Larry H. Ludlow / Higher education has renewed its focus on civic engagement due to a growing recognition of the distinctive opportunities for students to internalize civic values during college. This unique role has become increasingly important in context of the shifting trend in American youth away from traditional political participation towards increasing involvement in civic life. Past research in higher education and youth civic engagement has suggested connections between participation in and attitudes supportive of civic engagement across both civic and political realms. To further investigate this relationship, this dissertation looked at how students' civic engagement involvement and attitudes develop over time, tracking how participation levels in civic, political, and expressive activities impact the acquisition of a comprehensive set of civic attitudes during students' undergraduate tenure. The specific attitudes of interest in this study were students' self-efficacy through community service, politics, and civic involvement, commitment to civic accountability, and tolerance of diversity. This dissertation utilized data from two cohorts (N=137) of a multi-year study at a single institution as its main data source, with data from a nationally-representative sample of college students used for scale development and anchoring. A mixed-method three-factor within subjects design was used to explore the development within and between students' civic engagement involvement and attitudes across their four years at college by gender and minority status. Through the Rasch rating scale model, repeated measures analyses of variance, and repeated measures analyses of covariance, students' longitudinal commitment to civic engagement was shown to be much more complex than expected. Canonical correlation analysis was then used to address the connection between students' involvement and attitudes within their freshman, sophomore, junior, and senior years. While the results of this study were typically non-significant with regard to students' development of civic engagement involvement and attitudes, these findings provided valuable insights into the relationship between participation in specific types of activities at certain stages of students' college experiences and the acquisition of particular civic engagement attitudes. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2010. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Research, Measurement, and Evaluation.