Students at risk for reading difficulties often display skills deficits in basic reading skills (e.g., phonological awareness or PA, fluency, and comprehension). Phonological awareness instruction (PAI) and scaffolded instruction have been effective in improving reading skills for all students (National Reading Council, 1998). In relation, Reading to Read (RTR), a remedial reading program based on the methods of applied behavior analysis, direct instruction, and curriculum-based assessment, has been found to improve oral reading fluency and comprehension (e.g., Edwards, Tingstrom, & Cottingham, 1993; Tingstrom, Edwards, & Olmi, 1995). Despite the effectiveness of PAI and RTR in isolation, little research has been conducted to determine effectiveness of PAI and scaffolding combined with the RTR intervention. The purpose of this study was to investigate effectiveness of using PAI in combination with RTR as another instructional method for increasing reading fluency and comprehension. Participants included 5 elementary-aged students who have a special education diagnosis and are from rural southeastern region of the U.S. Data were collected using a single-subject research methodology and included correct words per minute (CWPM), errors per minute (EPM), and percent correct comprehension in all phases for all intervention conditions: (a) PAI, (b) RTR, and (c) PAI + RTR. Data were analyzed using visual inspection or graphical representation assessed by level, trend, and variability around level and trend between the different interventions as it relates to CWPM, EPM, and percent correct comprehension. When examining reading fluency, 1 of the 5 students who received the PAI + RTR interventions improved in reading fluency from baseline to intervention. When examining reading comprehension, all students demonstrated little to no change in percent correct comprehension questions across all conditions and phases. Implications, limitations, and future research relating to the results of this study are also discussed.

The participants in this study were referred by the teacher or the teacher support team for a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and development of a positive behavior support plan to address disruptive behavior and academic skills deficits. Therefore, the purpose of Experiment I was to examine the ability of FBA procedures to identify students with reading difficulty who demonstrated problem behavior potentially maintained by escape from academic demands. Each environmental variable introduced during the brief functional analysis was manipulated via a multiple element design (Cooper, Wacker, Sasso, Reimers, & Donn, 1990; Derby et al., 1992; Northup et al., 1991). Experiment II sought to empirically evaluate the effectiveness of the Reading to Read (RTR) intervention package in addressing the oral reading fluency and comprehension deficits of referred elementary students. Experiment II also examined the generalized effects of the reading intervention on reducing the identified escapemaintained problem behaviors (i.e., off-task) during the reading class. For Experiment II, a multiple baseline (MBL) across participants design was used to evaluate the impact of the RTR intervention on addressing both academic and problem behaviors (e.g., identified on the FAIR-T). Results from descriptive and functional analysis procedures in Experiment I revealed that all of the participants were performing at least one grade level below expectations in regarding to reading fluency. In addition, all of the participants exhibited more off-task behavior during the difficult task demand versus the easy task demand conditions of the brief functional analysis. The participants also obtained lower scores on comprehension questions during the difficult task demand versus the easy task demand conditions. This pattern of responding suggested the off-task behavior was potentially maintained by escape from academic demands in reading. Results from Experiment II revealed that all participants increased their oral reading fluency levels on intervention probes in comparison to the baseline levels. In addition to the increase in oral reading fluency, there was an increase in their percentage of correct responses in reading comprehension when compared to baseline data. In regards to generalization reading probes, all of the participants evidenced overall increases in their reading skills in comparison to baseline data. In fact, all of the participants increased from frustrational to near mastery levels. Finally, results from Experiment II revealed that all participants’ experienced reduction in their off-task behavior while partaking in the RTR intervention in comparison to baseline levels. This notable decrease extended throughout the study for all participants. Overall, the present results revealed that the RTR intervention was effective in addressing the reading fluency and comprehension deficits of identified students. In addition, remediation of reading skills appeared to have assisted in the reduction of social problem behavior performed during reading instruction in the general education classroom. Important implications for practice and inclusion of the procedures used in this study within applied settings are discussed. In addition, important limitations and considerations for future research are outlined.

Peer tutoring as an instructional strategy has been used by school personnel to increase academic achievement in the classroom setting. Traditionally, the peer tutoring concept relies on student partnerships linking higher achieving students with lower achieving students for structured reading sessions. Recently, new studies have focused on linking students with comparable reading achievements or cross-age peer tutors. Research suggests that using peer tutors may promote higher reading fluency in at-risk students as compared to teacher instruction. A potential reason for this phenomenon includes students’ comfort level with peers allowing for a more easy development of reading growth. The purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness, efficiency, and scalability of cross-age peer tutoring on reading fluency and reading comprehension. The study involved 7 fifth grade struggling readers as tutors to 7 third grade struggling readers. Reading to Read was used as the intervention protocol. The dyads met for 5 weeks with progress monitoring conducted at the beginning of each week. Results indicated consistent benefit in improving reading fluency in 13 of the 14 participants. Several implications to the study can be identified. Peer assisted learning can benefit both participants in reading fluency. Participating in the peer assisted learning process improves the attitudes toward reading of below grade level readers. Further implications, limitations, and future research relating to the results of this study are also discussed.