The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects on reading achievement for middle school students after participation in a computer-based reading intervention program, READ 180, as well as the relationship of program participation to later dropout rates, compared to students enrolled in a traditional reading remediation program. A nonequivalent control group research design was used to examine data collected from 384 students in Grades 6 through 8 participating in reading interventions spanning a 3-year period from 2003 through 2006. Independent samples t test and chi-square statistics were used to analyze data to determine the yearly reading achievement mean gains, differences between the effects of the two reading interventions, and later dropout frequencies. There were no significant differences between the treatment and comparison groups in reading scores during the first year of READ 180 implementation. Computer software problems affected the implementation of READ 180 during the first semester of implementation. The findings reveal a statistically significant difference between the effects on reading achievement scores for students who participated in READ 180 when implemented with moderate fidelity compared to students in a traditional reading remediation program during the 2nd and 3rd years of implementation. The findings in this study revealed that an intensive reading intervention, READ 180, can significantly improve reading achievement for struggling adolescent readers when implemented with moderate fidelity. Analyses of the data revealed differences between the number of 2003-2004 reading intervention participants and the school division cohort dropout rates. A significant difference was not observed between the 2004-2006 cohort dropout rates when compared to the school division rates. The findings in this study will be beneficial to secondary principals who are held accountable for literacy development, implementation, and evaluation as the school instructional leader. / Ph. D.

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The current study evaluated the implementation of evidence-based reading interventions using a multifaceted implementation measurement approach. Multilevel modeling was used to examine how three direct measures of implementation related to each other and to student academic outcomes and to examine patterns of implementation across time. Eight instructional groups were video taped weekly for nine weeks, and pre- and post-test assessments were given to 31 at-risk kindergartners from two schools using established evidence-based practices. Each implementation measure represented a different measurement approach (i.e., discrete behavioral measurement, global ratings) and focused on different aspects of implementation (e.g., structural, process, or multicomponent elements). Overall, results of this analysis indicated that (a) the implementation tools were highly correlated with each other, (b) only the multicomponent tool independently accounted for group differences, (c) together the multicomponent and process-oriented measures appear to account for additional variance in group differences, and (d) there were no significant trends in implementation across time as measured by any of the tools, however there were significant differences in trends over time between groups when using the structural measure. Implications for research and practice are discussed, including the importance of taking a multifaceted approach to measuring implementation and aligning implementation measures with program theory.

This thesis includes three empirical studies that have all aimed to increase the understanding of the interactions and connections between self-concepts, reading impairment, psychological health and Assistive Technology (AT). The use of applications in tablets as assistive technology to facilitate reading and compensate for reading impairment and its impact on the participants’ self-concepts and psychological health as well as on their reading abilities was also of interest. The first study included 67 pupils in school years 4-9. They were assessed by the Beck Youth Inventory (BYI) regarding self-image, anxiety and depression. The results showed no deviance from age-equivalent norm group scores. The second study included 35 pupils in school years 4-6. This study aimed at investigating the transfer effects on decoding and general reading ability after 20 intervention sessions where AT (applications in tablets) were used. Results showed that the decoding ability had progressed at the same rate as that of the norm group. The results also showed that using AT increased motivations to learn, as well as independence and improved family climate. The third study was a randomized control study (RCT) with 137 participants in school years 4, 8 and high school. The results showed that reading impaired children and adolescents to a great extent, but not completely unanimously, did not depict any different self-image or self-esteem than peers with an expected reading ability of the same age. Self-esteem was investigated by the Cultural Free Self Esteem Inventory (CFSEI-3). The CFSEI-3 scores showed no effect by interventions with AT. The results also showed that there were no signs of depression, assessed by BYI, in the investigated groups, but somewhat inconclusive results regarding anxiety where the school-year 4 group depicted higher levels of anxiety. The results generally showed a more positive depiction than what previous studies within the field have presented, which was interpreted as being due to the development of efficient pedagogical strategies and supportive attitudes in the school context, as well as among family members or peers.

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This investigation studied the impact of registered therapy dogs assigned to students in order to improve reading skills. The purpose of this study was to determine if children assigned to registered therapy dogs improve significantly in reading achievement and related school performance such as attendance and discipline when compared to students of similar characteristics not assigned to registered therapy dogs. Specifically, the study used data to ascertain whether students assigned to registered therapy dogs improved their reading skills and if these students demonstrated more or less growth than students of similar characteristics not assigned to registered therapy dogs. This study analyzed data from the Canine Assisted Reading Education (C.A.R.E. to Read) program, data collected from the teacher responses to the C.A.R.E. to Read Teacher Questionnaire, and data provided by Brevard Public School District. Repeated measures analyses and descriptive statistics clearly revealed that students assigned to registered therapy dogs demonstrated more reading growth than their peers who were not assigned to registered therapy dogs. Additionally, students assigned to the registered therapy dogs had a more positive attitude toward schoolwork, were more willing to participate in classroom activities, were more successful with higher level thinking skills, and were more self-confident after being assigned to the registered therapy dogs. Recommendations were made to address teacher training concerning classroom environment, higher level thinking skills, and identifying hesitant and resistant learners. Recommendations also were made for additional research on other uses for registered therapy dogs in the educational setting.

The participants in this study were referred by the teacher or the teacher support team for a functional behavioral assessment (FBA) and development of a positive behavior support plan to address disruptive behavior and academic skills deficits. Therefore, the purpose of Experiment I was to examine the ability of FBA procedures to identify students with reading difficulty who demonstrated problem behavior potentially maintained by escape from academic demands. Each environmental variable introduced during the brief functional analysis was manipulated via a multiple element design (Cooper, Wacker, Sasso, Reimers, & Donn, 1990; Derby et al., 1992; Northup et al., 1991). Experiment II sought to empirically evaluate the effectiveness of the Reading to Read (RTR) intervention package in addressing the oral reading fluency and comprehension deficits of referred elementary students. Experiment II also examined the generalized effects of the reading intervention on reducing the identified escapemaintained problem behaviors (i.e., off-task) during the reading class. For Experiment II, a multiple baseline (MBL) across participants design was used to evaluate the impact of the RTR intervention on addressing both academic and problem behaviors (e.g., identified on the FAIR-T). Results from descriptive and functional analysis procedures in Experiment I revealed that all of the participants were performing at least one grade level below expectations in regarding to reading fluency. In addition, all of the participants exhibited more off-task behavior during the difficult task demand versus the easy task demand conditions of the brief functional analysis. The participants also obtained lower scores on comprehension questions during the difficult task demand versus the easy task demand conditions. This pattern of responding suggested the off-task behavior was potentially maintained by escape from academic demands in reading. Results from Experiment II revealed that all participants increased their oral reading fluency levels on intervention probes in comparison to the baseline levels. In addition to the increase in oral reading fluency, there was an increase in their percentage of correct responses in reading comprehension when compared to baseline data. In regards to generalization reading probes, all of the participants evidenced overall increases in their reading skills in comparison to baseline data. In fact, all of the participants increased from frustrational to near mastery levels. Finally, results from Experiment II revealed that all participants’ experienced reduction in their off-task behavior while partaking in the RTR intervention in comparison to baseline levels. This notable decrease extended throughout the study for all participants. Overall, the present results revealed that the RTR intervention was effective in addressing the reading fluency and comprehension deficits of identified students. In addition, remediation of reading skills appeared to have assisted in the reduction of social problem behavior performed during reading instruction in the general education classroom. Important implications for practice and inclusion of the procedures used in this study within applied settings are discussed. In addition, important limitations and considerations for future research are outlined.

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This study investigated a Response to Intervention (RtI) practice at the middle school level using a randomly assigned Tier 2 vocabulary intervention. Although RtI research has documented improvement in the academic performance of elementary-aged students, RtI research in support of improved student performance in secondary schools is not prevalent. This study randomly assigned 86 sixth, seventh, and eighth graders into either the treatment or control condition. The purpose was to investigate whether middle school vocabulary instruction impacted vocabulary and/or comprehension growth for identified at-risk students. The experimental condition showed significant results for vocabulary (p=.011) but not comprehension (p=.657) on easyCBM outcome measures. Results are discussed in relation to teaching vocabulary independent of teaching comprehension directly.

Reading failure in elementary school is highly correlated with future academic and social problems. Schools commonly use Tier 2 reading interventions in Response to Intervention (RtI) frameworks to help close the gap between at-risk readers and their peers who read on grade-level. This dissertation presents the findings of a quasi-experimental research study of the effects of three Tier 2 reading interventions in an urban Title I elementary school's RtI framework. A regression discontinuity design (RDD) with two cutoff points was used to assign 320 students in grades 1-6 to two types of Tier 2 reading interventions administered by paraeducators: direct instruction (DI) and computer-assisted instruction (CAI). Students were assigned using normal curve equivalent reading composite scores on the Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement II, Brief Form (KTEA-II BFR). Students scoring below a lower cutoff were assigned to a DI reading intervention, while students scoring at or below an upper cutoff and above the lower cutoff were assigned to CAI reading interventions. January and May posttest iterations of the KTEA-II BFR served as outcome measures for all students. Results of the analysis indicated that the DI intervention was more effective than the CAI interventions at the lower cutoff (p < .01). Participation in CAI interventions was not any more or less effective than business-as-usual reading activities (p > .10). These findings suggest that that CAI programs may not be as helpful in closing the achievement gap between struggling students and their peers as DI interventions, and should be implemented with deliberation.