published_or_final_version / Psychology / Master / Master of Philosophy

Self-esteem involves a variety of cognitive processes that help people perceive, interpret, and process social information. A central component of people's self-esteem is their sense of belonging and feelings of acceptance. It follows that people react strongly to social rejection and that being attuned to signs of real or potential social rejection can serve a self-protection function. However, being overly attuned and sensitive to social rejection can have a paradoxical effect, whereby aberrant attentional processes can contribute to the perpetuation of the vicious cycle of low self-esteem. The goal of the research presented in this dissertation was twofold: to investigate whether people with low self-esteem are more vigilant for rejection information, and to investigate whether a rejection-inhibiting attentional training task that reduces their vigilance for rejection can help buffer against social and performance threats. I hypothesized that people with low self-esteem are more vigilant for rejection information than for acceptance information. I also hypothesized that training people, particularly those with low self-esteem, to inhibit and disengage from rejection promotes effective regulation of emotions and has positive psychological, behavioural, and physiological effects. Results from the first study show that people with low self-esteem have a greater attentional bias for rejection than for acceptance information. Across 7 other studies, participants with low self-esteem trained to inhibit rejection with a specially designed attentional training task showed a lower rejection bias for rejection information, less feelings of rejection after overt rejection, and less ineffective persistence. Regardless of level of self-esteem, participants trained to inhibit rejection showed less interfering thoughts about rejection while working on a task, higher state self-esteem after having been rejected and experiencing failure, less stress about their final exam, increases in self-esteem and decreases in perceived stress after a stressful work week, lower levels of cortisol, and increases in sales performance. Following a vicious cycle framework of low self-esteem and social stress, these results show that attentional bias training can circumvent the experience of social stress and possibly break the vicious cycle of low self-esteem.

Thesis (M.A.)--York University, 2006. Graduate Programme in Psychology. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 57-62). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:MR29579

Thesis (M. Phil.)--University of Hong Kong, 2010. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 89-97). Also available in print.

Thesis (M.A.)--University of North Carolina at Greensboro, 2007. / Title from PDF t.p. (viewed Oct. 22, 2007). Directed by Paul J. Silvia; submitted to the Dept. of Psychology. Includes bibliographical references (p. 50-53).

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Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Texas at Austin, 2001. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 141-150). Available also in a digital version from Dissertation Abstracts.

published_or_final_version / Psychology / Master / Master of Philosophy

People with high norm-based rejection sensitivity have heightened anticipatory anxiety and expectation of rejection if they do not follow norms. Under threats of rejection (e.g., when personal preferences collide with group norms), they are more intended to conform to group norms to avoid social rejection (Poon et al., 2010). Thus, they are more susceptible to peer pressure for risk-taking behaviors and have less autonomy to make decision. Research also indicates that they derive their self-worth from external sources such as success in academic and work settings (Yip et al., 2009). Thus, they experience elevated anxiety for uncertain outcome and decreased self-esteem following failure. The purpose of the present research is to examine strategies that can alleviate the negative impacts of norm-based rejection sensitivity. Using a priming procedure, Study 1 experimentally examined the effects of promoting multiple routes to social acceptance. Participants of experimental group read stories of public figures who gained social acceptance through multiple routes such as ego strength and morals. Those stories reminded them that even if they did not follow group norms, they could still gain social acceptance through different virtues. After that, they indicated their reactions in some hypothetical scenarios involving threats of rejection and failure. As expected, those who read stories of public figures (vs. tourist spots) were less intended to conform under group pressure, more autonomous in deciding whether or not to conform, less anxious about the repercussions of non-conformity, and more inclined to expect social acceptance despite non-conformity. Since participants who read stories of public figures may still base their self-worth on social acceptance, Study 2 aimed to remind them that others’ approval was not required for one’s self-acceptance. Using the same priming procedure as Study 1, participants of experimental group read life stories of ordinary people whose self-worth was not contingent on others’ approval. Those stories could remind them that others’ approval was not required for one’s self-acceptance. Results showed that participants of experimental group were less intended to conform, more autonomous, and less anxious about the repercussions of non-conformity. Furthermore, they reported less decline in self-esteem following social rejection. In Study 2, those who learnt not to base their self-worth on others’ approval might be still susceptible to greater negative affect following failure in academic and work settings. Therefore, Study 3 went one step further to promote unconditional self-acceptance. Using the same experimental paradigm, participants of experimental group read a passage highlighting the idea that everyone is intrinsically valuable regardless of whether one is self-efficacious and popular. As expected, in additional to the aforementioned psychological benefits, participants being primed with unconditional self-acceptance were less anxious about failure, less likely to blame themselves for failure, and less likely to experience loss of self-worth following failure. The three experiments shed lights on the psychological mechanisms through which multiple routes to social acceptance and self-acceptance temporarily alleviate the negative impacts of norm-based rejection sensitivity. Further studies can examine whether continuous acceptance-based and mindfulness-based interventions have long-term benefits for people with high norm-based rejection sensitivity. / published_or_final_version / Psychology / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

Previous studies have demonstrated a moderate correlation between rejection sensitivity and depression. In a study of college females, researchers found that high levels of rejection sensitivity were associated with higher BDI scores following a partner initiated breakup (Ayduk, Downey, & Kim, 2001). Another study found that rejection sensitivity and depression are positively correlated for both males and females (Mellin, 2008). No studies to this date have examined the causal effects of depressed mood on rejection sensitivity, however. Cognitive theories would suggest that the relationship between the two may be reciprocal, with trait rejection sensitivity eliciting depression, but then the resulting depression priming individuals to be more sensitive to rejection. The current experiment investigates the causal effects of manipulated mood on levels of rejection sensitivity. Participants were 88 undergraduate students from a mid-sized Midwestern university. Participants were randomly assigned to experience a positive, negative, or neutral mood induction, using videos. Participants then completed the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-X), to check the effectiveness of the mood induction procedure, and then the Rejection Sensitivity Questionnaire (RSQ), to examine participants’ levels of rejection sensitivity. A one-way ANOVA on the PANAS-X scores indicated that the mood induction procedures were effective. Joviality scores were significantly higher in the positive mood group, than the neutral mood group, which were significantly higher than the negative mood group. Sad scores were significantly lower in the negative mood group than the neutral mood group, which were lower than the positive mood group. An ANOVA comparing RSQ scores was significant. Follow-up Tukey HSD tests indicated that participants in the positive mood group reported statistically lower levels of rejection sensitivity than those in the negative and neutral groups (who did not differ). Correlational analyses indicate that there is a significant positive correlation between PANAS Sad and RSQ scores (r = .258) and a significant negative correlation between PANAS Joviality and RSQ scores (r = -.257). These findings indicate that engaging in activities that elicit a positive mood (e.g., watching uplifting video clips) makes people feel good and allows them to develop different perceptions about social situations and rejection. It also provides support for the utility of positive psychology interventions. / Department of Psychological Science