Relationships between spirituality and health outcomes are well supported in research; however, measurement of spirituality often reflects a Judeo-Christian framework and is predominantly theocentric, neglecting the increasing religious pluralism and non-traditional expressions of spirituality in the United States. A new measure of spirituality was based on a conceptualization of nontheistic spirituality that is understood to be a relatively stable motivational process entailing a search for sacred connection, with “sacred” being defined by individual perceptions and not necessitating divine association. Item development for the current instrument included an initial pool of 65 items and two phases of revision and content validation. The resulting 45-item pool was examined for content validity via two review phases in which expert reviewers rated quality of item form and item congruence with the present spirituality conceptualization. This research addresses current measurement limitations and provides a foundation for continued revision and validation of a nontheistic-based spirituality measure.

In a traditional sense, religion has been culturally, societally, and relationally influential on humankind in substantial ways. However, consumers are shifting towards a more modern expression of religion in which brands are seemingly equal alternatives. This shift is viable due to the concept of brand religiosity within community, defined as an intense devotion to a brand that is central in a consumer’s life, which is contingent upon identification with a brand community. Across four studies, I show that the concept of brand religiosity has overlooked the importance of the brand community. Although the brand is important, brand religiosity is rooted in the brand community, and the brand is the mechanism to which community members express religiosity. Specifically, I conduct 24 in-depth interviews using a hermeneutic phenomenological approach to uncover antecedents and outcomes of brand religiosity within community. I empirically test the antecedents and outcomes of brand religiosity within community using Social Identity Theory. From there, I conduct a textual content analysis to reveal the nuances of brand religiosity within community in a different context. I analyze the role appreciation of the brand community plays in strengthening the outcomes of brand religiosity within community. Studies 1, 2, and 3 examine the positive aspects of brand religiosity within community; however, it is important to understand the construct holistically, so Study 4 analyzes the dark side of brand religiosity within community. Study 4 examines the outcomes of brand religiosity within community that could lend themselves to perceptions of fanaticism, ultimately hurting the brand through brand avoidance and dislike of the brand community. Conducting these studies offers answers to the following research questions – What are the antecedents and outcomes of brand religiosity within community? How do the antecedents influence brand religiosity within community and, ultimately, the outcomes? What are the nuances of brand religiosity within community? How does the appreciation of a brand community impact the relationships from brand religiosity within community to the outcomes? Does brand religiosity within community have a dark side? How can outcomes of brand religiosity within community lead to negative outcomes for a brand? Implications are also discussed.

Carlo Cattaneo (1801-1869) would have been a remarkable man in any time period. He was interested in everything, and as a man of ideas was involved in the astonishing technological and stimulating political events of the nineteenth century. He encouraged the building of railways as a way to unite the Italian peninsula, and he was involved in connecting Italy to the rest of Europe through the St. Gothard Tunnel. An innovator of gas lighting in his native Milan, the great Lombard thinker was a prolific writer, and kept prodigious notes and copies of his correspondence. His economic and scientific involvement in the latest technology was emblematic of the intellectual strides he made. For example, he logically and rationally argued for racial and religious tolerance of the Jews over one hundred years before the enactment of the infamous Racial Laws in Fascist Italy. Today most know Carlo Cattaneo as the father of Italian federalism. During the Cinque Giornate insurrection in Milan in 1848, Carlo Cattaneo was an integral part of the war committee, and its spokesman. Although he had many liberal ideas about government and the rights of men, Carlo Cattaneo was a reluctant revolutionary, preferring exile in Switzerland over pledging allegiance to the Savoyard monarchy during the Risorgimento. Historians have almost unanimously declared that Carlo Cattaneo was anticlerical and irreligious. This was not true. CARLO CATTANEO: THE RELIGIOSITY OF A RELUCTANT REVOLUTIONARY examines the writings and the correspondence of Carlo Cattaneo, and concludes that the Cattanean opus is replete with Biblical references and allusions, Christian traditions and ideas. Historians have not taken the religiosity found in the writings of Carlo Cattaneo seriously. This thesis does.

The last few years have prompted empirical research about the COVID-19 pandemic. Undoubtedly, the pandemic has influenced a multitude of psychological constructs, including religiosity and substance use (Harper et al., 2020). Research about the effects of COVID-19 on religiosity and substance has been repeatedly demonstrated in the literature (Buchtova et al., 2022; Mosaval et al., 2022; Baillargeon et al., 2020). Although previous research has found relationships between these variables, no research exists about the potential connection between religiosity, substance use, and the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the purposes of this research study is to fill this existing gap in the literature. The COVID-19 pandemic has certainly exacerbated substance use and its complex facets. Additionally, the pandemic has negatively impacted several dimensions of substance use worldwide, including recovery meetings and communities, treatment services, and the cognitive and emotional functions of those with SUD and those who provide services to people with SUD (Palacio-Gonzalez et al., 2022; Mellis et al., 2021; Radfar et al., 2021; DeJong et al., 2022). Mellis et al. (2021) found that after the COVID-19 pandemic, individuals with a history of multiple SUDs reported more issues with telehealth and complications with accessing needed services. DeJong et al. (2021) highlighted the emotional aspects that people in recovery from SUD have faced since the COVID-19 pandemic. Substantial research regarding the negative relationship between religiosity and substance use exists. Religiosity is associated with a significant reduction in the rates of marijuana use, binge drinking, tobacco use, illicit drug use, and prescription drug use (Burdette et al., 2018; Edlund et al., 2010; Ford & Hill, 2012; Rivera et al., 2018). Johnson et al. (2008) found that negative beliefs about alcohol mediated the relationship between religious involvement and substance use. Additionally, the relationship between external religiosity and alcohol and tobacco use was moderated by internal religiosity, according to Marsiglia et al. (2011). These associations suggest that religiosity serves as a protective factor against substance use. Indeed, these findings are signified by Hai (2012) and Sartor et al. (2019), as they found that religiosity is a protective factor against marijuana and nicotine use. In the current study, we aim to investigate the moderating effects of COVID-19 on the relationship between intrinsic religious commitment and substance use using a simple moderation model conducted in PROCESS Macro by Hayes (2018). The model of religious commitment negatively predicting substance use, moderated by whether or not COVID-19 was occurring, was statistically significant, F(3, 436) = 9.71, p >.001, ∆R2 = .0625. This indicates that religiosity negatively predicts substance use, and COVID-19 significantly moderated the relationship. With these findings in mind, we propose that during COVID-19, when substance use increased, religious commitment served as a protective factor against increased use during COVID-19.

The millennial generation is said to consist of all those born between the years of 1978 and 1996. The majority has come of age and has the ability to be active participants in the political community. For the past three elections they have been the democratic party biggest supporters. In the 2008 presidential election 68% of all Millennial voters voted for Barack Obama. Millennials are also reporting to be less religious and more spiritual. They are attending religious services less frequently and identify with religious denominations less often. Throughout American history, religion is known to have an effect on political ideologies. So with Millennials religiosity changing, does their religiosity have any effect on their political ideology? The purpose of my research is to examine the religious ideologies of Millennials and see how they are affecting their political ideologies. To collect my data I have surveyed 380 Millennials. I choose to take a quantitative approach to this research project and use statistics as the basis of my analysis. My research is important to my discipline as well as my society because it closes the gaps between existing research of the Millennial generation. This research also contributes to literature because it is important to understand the political and religious views of the upcoming generation. Millennials have the ability to make huge political statements, and their decisions, attitudes, and behavior will significantly impact the future of the United States.

Much research focuses on religious bias and in particular the marginalization of Muslims in America. What initially surprised post 9-11 researchers is that participants typically rank atheists lower than Muslims in the areas of private and public trust. Further research is needed to continue to understand the nature and extent of religious-based bias. The present study explores whether a job candidate's religion impacts perception of the candidate's "hireability" and source credibility, including elements of trustworthiness, expertise and attractiveness. Participants were randomly assigned to review an identical version of a resume in which only the implied religion of the candidate was manipulated. One line of the candidate's resume suggested that the candidate was Christian, Muslim, Scientologist, Atheist or no religion was indicated. Participants then rated the candidate using a 3-question Hireability Index (Rudman & Glick, 2001) and the Source-Credibility Scale (SCS: Ohanian, 1990). The SCS contains 3 subscales measuring Attractiveness, Expertise and Trustworthiness. In this study, attractiveness emerged as a variable influenced by the religion of the candidate. Trends in the data also suggest that the candidate's religion may influence the candidate's overall Hireability Index score as well. The results suggest that religion may influence variables related to hireability but seem to more strongly influence personal variables such as ratings of attractiveness when the ratings are made by participants who are young and educated.

Infidelity in romantic relationships is common and has been associated with relationship dissolution and strain on individuals. Most religions teach that infidelity is harmful, and some researchers have suggested that, in the aggregate, more religious people might be less likely to report infidelity. However, research has been mixed, with some studies finding that more religious people are less likely to report infidelity, other studies finding that more religious people are more likely to report infidelity, and other studies finding no relationship. To clarify seemingly contradictory findings, I conducted a meta-analysis of the infidelity-religiosity relationship with 38 studies and a total sample size of over 35,000. A random-effects analysis found a small, statistically significant, inverse relationship between religiosity and infidelity (r = -.07, 95% CI [-.12, -.03]). However, a large degree of heterogeneity (Q = 1878.75.52, p < 0.001; I2 = 96.86) existed in this analysis, suggesting that effect sizes varied greatly between studies. In planned grouped comparisons, the relationship between religiosity and physical infidelity was not significantly different from the relationship between religiosity and emotional infidelity. Attendance at religious services and other measures of religiosity had similar relationships with infidelity, and spirituality and religiosity were equally protective against infidelity. Meta-regressions found that sample characteristics, such as race and gender, did not have a statistically significant relationship with the religiosity-infidelity effect size (p > .05), while publication status predicted effect size (p < .05). Findings are discussed through the lens of cognitive dissonance theory and intrinsic religious theory.

In this applied microeconomics dissertation, we study the effect of religiosity and life events on risk preferences and how happiness affect altruism. We begin with the first chapter by examining the relationship between high-risk health behavior and religiosity. Religious beliefs can impact an individual's behavior, including their future health. The 2021 CDC analyses shows that sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are still common, with an estimated 1 in 5 people in the US having an STI, and 13% of persons in the US with age 12 years old and above consuming any illicit drugs. We estimate the effect of religiosity on high-risk health behavior using panel data from the General Social Survey and construct a high-risk health behavior index using the CDC high-risk behaviors. The religiosity index was developed by combining religiosity dimensions such as religious service attendance, prayer frequency, and religious affiliation. Ordered probit was performed to test the relationship between high-risk behavior and religiosity. The result indicates that religiosity is negatively associated with high-risk health behavior and is statistically significant. We confirmed that religious people are less likely to be involved in risky behaviors, especially for Catholics. We also find that individuals who switch religion are more likely to engage in high-risk health behaviors. In the second chapter, we examined the relationship between health and happiness and how happiness impacts altruism. The previous economics literature has shown that altruism can create a warm glow or cause happiness; we tested instead whether happy people are more altruistic. Using data from the General Social Survey (GSS) covering the period of 2002, 2004, 2012, and 2014, we employed a two-stage least square approach and performed OLS and ordered probit regression. We use health as an instrumental variable for happiness. Overall, the results indicate that happiness is associated with volunteer work and giving to charity and provide a basis for policy development to focus on promoting factors that contribute to happiness and wellbeing in order to foster pro-social behavior such as volunteering and donation to charity. Lastly, on the third chapter, we investigate how life events affect risk aversion using the German Socio-economic Panel (SOEP) Data. Our fixed effects estimation suggests that experiencing childbirth and losing parents decrease individuals' risk-taking propensity, while getting separated from a spouse or partner increases the willingness to take risks. We also find that changing jobs increases the willingness to take risks, and individuals who become self-employed tend to take more risks. Furthermore, we examine the average treatment effect on the treated (ATET) and find that for family-related events that are relatively beyond control, such as experiencing childbirth or the death of a child, parent, or spouse or partner, people tend to become more risk-averse. On the other hand, people tend to become less risk-averse for circumstances that are relatively within control, such getting married, separated, and divorced.

Several theories have been used to capture the trend of a general decline in religiosity in Western Europe. The main assumption in most of these theories is that religiosity amongst the public has shifted towards a more private and individual form of belief that refrains from the traditional church-based belief. Contemporary Sweden is often singled out as a country where the secularization process has gone particularly far. The earliest results indicating a decline in church-oriented religiosity in Sweden goes back to 1955. The aim of this study is to investigate the Swedish public's religiosity and attitude towards the Church of Sweden's attempts at religious profiling in the early post-war period. The empirical data consists of a public opinion poll concerning the state-church and Christianity that was carried out in 1948. The result of the study indicates that only a minority of the Swedish public at the time subscribed to a church-based religiosity. Religion was increasingly seen as a private matter, a trend that becomes even clearer if one considers how the Swedes who participated in the opinion poll related to the Church of Sweden’s attempts to clarify its core beliefs.

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