Since the 1987 Brundtland Report, the development of urban areas has been considered a key determinant in achieving 'sustainability'. Greater residential density is increasingly advocated for and applied through policy statements around the world as a way of achieving this goal. Various tiers of New Zealand government are following international policy trends, developing programmes, protocols and strategies that promote sustainability and 'good' urban design practices through intensification, or concentration, within urban areas. Research shows that a policy framework of urban concentration, through greater residential density, is only successful where consumers and providers of housing support its practical application. Confrontation between policy and the market, and the acceptability of greater levels of residential density to residents, can jeopardise a policy's success. This research uses a mix of survey and interview techniques to determine the acceptability of "medium density" developments to residents, and to understand the practises and motivations of housing developers in Christchurch's "Living 3" zone. This zone is predominantly sited between the central business district and low-density suburban areas, making it ideally located to facilitate policies of intensification. The principle purpose of the zone is the development of medium-density residential accommodation, however greater residential density is relatively new to Christchurch where the potential for expansion is seemingly unbounded. The intention of this research is to assist the planning, production and performance of future developments. In conclusion, this thesis makes recommendations to improve the form and design of medium density residential developments in Christchurch's inner Living Three zone in terms of the market's producers and consumers.

For at least thirty years urban growth management policies in Australian cities have focused on increasing residential densities as a method of addressing environmental issues. This view has been supported by a number of researchers who hypothesise that to achieve reductions in transport emissions individuals need to be encouraged to use public transport, and the most appropriate method of increasing public transport use occurs predominately from building residential areas at high densities around public transport nodes. This notion is integral to recent urban growth management policies in Sydney, which have sought to increase residential densities under the rubric of urban consolidation. There are a number of researchers who have promoted the benefit of increasing urban densities as a way of increasing public transport use. In Australia, the most cited research in this area is that of Newman and Kenworthy. Nonetheless, there are a number of commentators who have criticised the emphasis of density in increasing public transport use. These commentators assert that factors other than density, particularly socio-economic factors, are more important in influencing public transport use. Nevertheless, a major gap within this concept is that the research is conducted at the macro-level with minimal analysis at the meso or micro level. This thesis attempts to fill a gap in our knowledge by assessing the relationship between urban density and public transport use, particularly trains, at the macro, meso and micro level. The analyses used data across the Sydney metropolitan area and by geographical location to assess the implications of the density-public transport debate, and its articulation in urban consolidation policies. Such an analysis also has implications for other Australian cities who have promoted urban consolidation. The study concludes that residential density is not as important as socio-economic factors in influencing one form of public transport use, namely trains. Variables such as car ownership, country of origin, housing tenure, and the type and location of employment are more important in influencing train use than density. The study concludes that at the macro level the notion of increasing densities increases public transport use is plausible, yet at the micro level the relationship between high density housing and public transport use (in this case train use) is more complex. This suggests that the promotion of urban consolidation policies as a means to increase public transport use needs to be re-assessed. Importantly, there is still much research to be conducted to fully comprehend the relationships between housing and transport in order to better inform urban growth management policies in cities, including Sydney.

For at least thirty years urban growth management policies in Australian cities have focused on increasing residential densities as a method of addressing environmental issues. This view has been supported by a number of researchers who hypothesise that to achieve reductions in transport emissions individuals need to be encouraged to use public transport, and the most appropriate method of increasing public transport use occurs predominately from building residential areas at high densities around public transport nodes. This notion is integral to recent urban growth management policies in Sydney, which have sought to increase residential densities under the rubric of urban consolidation. There are a number of researchers who have promoted the benefit of increasing urban densities as a way of increasing public transport use. In Australia, the most cited research in this area is that of Newman and Kenworthy. Nonetheless, there are a number of commentators who have criticised the emphasis of density in increasing public transport use. These commentators assert that factors other than density, particularly socio-economic factors, are more important in influencing public transport use. Nevertheless, a major gap within this concept is that the research is conducted at the macro-level with minimal analysis at the meso or micro level. This thesis attempts to fill a gap in our knowledge by assessing the relationship between urban density and public transport use, particularly trains, at the macro, meso and micro level. The analyses used data across the Sydney metropolitan area and by geographical location to assess the implications of the density-public transport debate, and its articulation in urban consolidation policies. Such an analysis also has implications for other Australian cities who have promoted urban consolidation. The study concludes that residential density is not as important as socio-economic factors in influencing one form of public transport use, namely trains. Variables such as car ownership, country of origin, housing tenure, and the type and location of employment are more important in influencing train use than density. The study concludes that at the macro level the notion of increasing densities increases public transport use is plausible, yet at the micro level the relationship between high density housing and public transport use (in this case train use) is more complex. This suggests that the promotion of urban consolidation policies as a means to increase public transport use needs to be re-assessed. Importantly, there is still much research to be conducted to fully comprehend the relationships between housing and transport in order to better inform urban growth management policies in cities, including Sydney.

Since the 1987 Brundtland Report, the development of urban areas has been considered a key determinant in achieving 'sustainability'. Greater residential density is increasingly advocated for and applied through policy statements around the world as a way of achieving this goal. Various tiers of New Zealand government are following international policy trends, developing programmes, protocols and strategies that promote sustainability and 'good' urban design practices through intensification, or concentration, within urban areas. Research shows that a policy framework of urban concentration, through greater residential density, is only successful where consumers and providers of housing support its practical application. Confrontation between policy and the market, and the acceptability of greater levels of residential density to residents, can jeopardise a policy's success. This research uses a mix of survey and interview techniques to determine the acceptability of "medium density" developments to residents, and to understand the practises and motivations of housing developers in Christchurch's "Living 3" zone. This zone is predominantly sited between the central business district and low-density suburban areas, making it ideally located to facilitate policies of intensification. The principle purpose of the zone is the development of medium-density residential accommodation, however greater residential density is relatively new to Christchurch where the potential for expansion is seemingly unbounded. The intention of this research is to assist the planning, production and performance of future developments. In conclusion, this thesis makes recommendations to improve the form and design of medium density residential developments in Christchurch's inner Living Three zone in terms of the market's producers and consumers.

Over the past half-century, Baltimore County, Maryland has experienced various policy measures that have shaped development patterns. This thesis analyzes three spatially explicit parcel-level models of residential development in Baltimore County to examine the effects of land-use regulations on multiple density classes from 1996 to 2008. The first model analyzes the entire county, while the second analyzes areas outside the county urban growth boundary, while the third model studied areas inside the boundary. While this region has been previously analyzed, prior studies have generally ignored policy affects upon the density of new residential subdivisions. The use of a binary dependent variable, i.e. develop or not develop, represents a critical oversight as this assumes policy measures exert a uniform impact across all development types. This study addressed this issue with the literature by using a multinomial logit model to differentiate the effects of various development policies to better understand residential growth. The objective of this research is to determine what factors influence individual landowner's decision to convert an undeveloped property to residential use. The impacts of rural conservation (RC) zoning and urban growth boundaries (UGB) comprise the prominent land-use regulations analyzed in this study. The empirical estimates provided significant evidence that maximum density zoning effectively limits the density of new residential development in almost every model. Other policy measures, mainly rural legacy areas and critical areas, were generally found to be ineffective at limiting growth. This research concludes that maximum density zoning comprises the strongest tool for limiting development to a density mandated by the county government. Finally, maps depicting the predicted probability of development at two densities are included and discussed to indicate the areas most likely to be subdivided for residential land use.

Taiwanese residential construction experienced a massive rise and then fall in residential unit completions during the period 1992-1997. Completions rose nearly 200 per cent between 1992 and 1994 alone. A series of questions arise in relation to this phenomenon (referred to here as 'the Peak'): Why did it occur? How was this increase in construction achieved in such a short time? What were its impacts? Was it a supply-side or a demand-side phenomenon? And what are the significance and implications of the Peak? This thesis adopts a distinct methodological stance, being explanatory and interpretative rather than concerned with theory construction and testing. It is argued that this is appropriate as the Peak was a singular phenomenon, and not part of the regular fluctuations in a residential market cycle. Consequently, it is treated as an event and event-triggered, rather than as part of a continuing time-series. In addition, given that it was influenced by an enormous array of exogenous factors, including politics, the economy, and government regulations and policy, as well as by demographic, historical and geographical factors, a holistic approach is employed, as opposed to a reductionist one. The purpose is to build as complete an interpretation as possible. A major trigger for the Peak was the announcement of a residential density regulation (vohme control) in early 1992. This regulation, which threatened to dramatically reduce the profitability of development land, caused a massive acceleration in the rate of residential development approvals and ensuing completions. The regulation is viewed as interacting with a loosening of development and construction credit restrictions in late 1990 to precipitate a massive Peak in residential construction. This took glace over a very short period of time. This is analysed for each city and county in Taiwan as well as for Taiwan as a whole, the same factors applying throughout the country with the exception of Taipei City. In Taipei City, the peak occurred in a milder form in the 1980s rather than in the 1990s, due to an earlier implementation of volume control. This provides support for the overall interpretation of the thesis. After its announcement a grace period before the regulation was to come into effect allowed existing developers and landowners to propose and execute land development and construction under the old regulation. This period also induced new developers into the market, in part based on an expectation of higher unit prices resulting from volume control. This created a huge new stock of smaller-size apartments. Accompanied by falling prices, this outcome is consistent with the supply-side explanation of the Peak. Additional evidence of a supply-side phenomenon includes the high vacancies and unsold developer inventories that resulted. The rush to construction under the old regulation meant that the demand and supply market feedback loop could not effectively operate. The presence of simultaneous production peaks in all cities and counties is just one piece of evidence that this feedback loop was ineffective. A pooled cross-sectional time-series model, based on supply and demand factors of all cities and counties during 1982-1998, was used to further analyse this model of the Peak. Again the results are consistent with the supply- side interpretation. While credit loosening and volume control triggered the Peak, it is the existence of huge production flexibilities in the residential construction industry that enabled such a massive and rapid increase in construction. These flexibilities flowed, in part, from a dominant reinforced concrete construction method, as well as the Taiwanese subcontracting system, and residential construction industry networks. It is argued that these networks provided a form of quasi-public good that could be exploited. These same factors also facilitated the rapid entry of new developers into the industry. Conversely, this was associated with a decline in construction quality, as the limits of flexibility were reached. Some evidence for this was revealed by the 1999 earthquake. Imputed construction costs rose enormously during the Peak, with profits necessarily declining under the combined pressures of falling prices and rising costs. This resulted in bankruptcies and other exits from the industry. The impacts of oversupply -such as a high vacancy rate, growing developer inventories and falling prices -are expected to be long-term. The vacant stock is calculated as equivalent to ten to twelve years of pre- Peak construction. This thesis concludes that the Peak was a discontinuity phenomenon. It was triggered by a unique set of events, rather than being part of a continuous historical development. While developer behaviour was individually rational, collectively their decisions were disastrous for themselves and the industry

The City of San Luis Obispo faces an ongoing housing production shortage and housing affordability crisis that has been afflicting jurisdictions across State of California for a prolonged period of time. The City faces many of the same housing availability and affordability challenges as the rest of the State, but also has distinct characteristics that necessitate unique policies and strategies, such as the concurrent presence of both a large student and young professional population as well as a wealthy retirement community, which drastically drives up housing prices and demand. The Flexible Density Program is proposed by the City of San Luis Obispo as a potential strategy to facilitate growth of the City’s overall housing stock, incentivize development of smaller and potentially more affordable residential units, and provide a viable housing option for young professionals seeking to live in the City’s downtown. The City’s envisioned program approach allows flexibility in residential density limits to certain mixed-use residential projects in order to stimulate production of more, smaller, residential units in the Downtown and Upper Monterey areas of the City. This report describes the initial development of the proposed Flexible Density Program as follows. First, the report reviews the ongoing housing shortage and its impact on the City and the local demographic and housing context to identify community housing needs. Next, the report refers to relevant literature and research on small residential units as a housing typology, provides examples of inventive city development programs and mixed-use residential projects featuring small units. Research findings are used to develop the structure of the Flexible Density Program in alignment with the identified community housing needs. This culminating draft ordinance specifies the parameters of the program and imbeds the program in the City’s Zoning Regulations. Current conditions of the Downtown and Upper Monterey areas of the City are then analyzed to identify potential development constraints and evaluate the potential residential capacity of these areas to accommodate small residential units. The results of the residential capacity analysis indicate that the Downtown and Upper Monterey areas have a significant capacity to accommodate additional smaller residential units in addition to those that are able to be developed under standard maximum residential density limits. These results validate that the Flexible Density Program has the potential to help grow the City’s housing stock as well as to provide a unique housing typology option to community residents in these areas.

Master of Regional and Community Planning / Department of Landscape Architecture/Regional and Community Planning / Jason Brody / Today, achieving higher residential densities is an integral part of most discussions on concepts such as sustainability, placemaking, smart growth and new urbanism. It is argued that high density environments can potentially improve quality of life through a range of social benefits. In attempting to achieve these benefits, often times, developments that provide more than a certain number of dwelling units are considered desirable and successful high-density developments. However, understanding high residential density merely in terms of an increase in the number of dwelling units over an area of development might not help realize meaningful social benefits; in fact it could result in problems such as parking constraints, increased vehicular traffic, crowding, and eventually abandonment. This implies a dilemma of understanding high density environments holistically. Using literature review and design exploration as two key research methods, this project aims at resolving this dilemma by presenting a holistic understanding of desirable high-density environments. The research works on the idea that high densities are a matter of design and performance. Through synthesis of literature review and explorative design findings, this research focuses on the qualitative aspects of high density environments that make them meaningful and desirable. Through synthesis of literature review and design findings, the research finds that desirable high density environments should (a) Be Physically Compact; (b) Support Urbanity; and (c) Offer Livability and Sense of Place. These three qualitative aspects of high density environments are critical in determining how well such environments perform. The research further proposes eight meaningful goals and seventeen specific guidelines to achieve aforementioned three qualities that influence the performance of high density developments. In addition to these principles and guidelines, opportunities and challenges posed by explorative design exercises also allows identifying certain supplementary guidelines necessary to strengthen the framework. Together, these findings result in a theoretical framework that may be used as an effective design and evaluation tool in considering high density environments. This framework is named “Density Dynamics” to signify various morphological and socio-economic dynamics involved in a holistic understanding of high density environments.