Corporate leaders are expected to engage in corporate social responsibility by some stakeholders, but there is no consistent evidence that corporate social performance relates to financial performance. Grounded in instrumental stakeholder theory, the purpose of this correlational study was to examine the relationship among energy productivity, greenhouse gas productivity, and return on equity. The 2016 Newsweek Green Ranking U.S. 500 was the population for this study, which consisted of the largest companies in the United States with the highest corporate social performance scores. The secondary data were collected from Newsweek.com and Morningstar.com for this study. The multiple linear regression was used in the data analysis for the study. This study's model was F(2,104) = 1.028, p = .361, Adjusted R2 = .001 and represented that there was not a statistically significant relationship among energy productivity, greenhouse gas productivity, and return on equity. The implications for positive social change include the potential to provide corporate leaders with additional evidence to inform fact-based decisions related to the strategic allocation of resources to manage corporate energy productivity and greenhouse productivity. Effectively managing energy productivity and greenhouse gas productivity could contribute to reducing global warming, which would improve the quality of lives of U.S residents.

Studies were conducted to determine the effectiveness of using targeted grazing and prescribed burning as tools to reduce fire hazards and cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum) dominance on rangelands in the northern Great Basin. A field study, with four grazing-burning treatments (graze and no-burn, graze and burn, no-graze and burn, and no-graze and no-burn), was conducted on a B. tectorum-dominated site near McDermitt, Nevada from 2005-2007. Cattle removed 80-90% of standing biomass in grazed plots in May 2005 and 2006 when B. tectorum was in the boot (phenological) stage. Grazed and ungrazed plots were burned in October 2005 and 2006. Targeted grazing in May 2005 reduced B. tectorum biomass and cover, which resulted in reductions in flame length and rate of spread when plots were burned in October 2005. When grazing treatments were repeated on the same plots in May 2006, B. tectorum biomass and cover were reduced to the point that fires did not carry in grazed plots in October 2006. Fuel characteristics of the October 2005 burns were used to parameterize dry climate grass models in BehavePlus 3.0, and simulation modeling indicated that grazing in spring (May) would reduce the potential for catastrophic fires during the peak fire season (July-August). The graze-and-burn treatment was more effective than grazing alone (graze and no-burn treatment) and burning alone (no-graze and burn treatment) in reducing B. tectorum cover, biomass, plant density, and seed density, and in shifting species composition from a community dominated by B. tectorum to one composed of a suite of species [including tumble mustard (Sisymbrium altissimum), clasping pepperweed (Lepidium perfoliatum), and Sandberg bluegrass (Poa secunda)], with B. tectorum as a component rather than a dominant. A simulation study was designed to compare the cost-effectiveness of using cattle grazing and herbicide to create fuel breaks on B. tectorum-dominated landscapes in the northern Great Basin. Fuel characteristics from this targeted grazing study and from a Plateau® (Imazapic) herbicide study near Kuna, Idaho were used to parameterize fire behavior models and simulate flame lengths and rates of spread for the two fuel reduction treatments under peak fire conditions using BEHAVE Plus. Targeted grazing and Plateau® had similar reductions in flame length and rate of spread. Cattle grazing had high fixed costs (primarily fencing), and was more cost-effective than applications of Plateau® under five fuel loading scenarios except for three consecutive years of low fuel loads.

Recent trends to develop farmland into improved irrigated pastures raise questions regarding the profitability of creep supplementing terminal-sired calves on these production systems. This study was initiated to answer these questions. Two previously established adjacent sprinkler-irrigated plots were separated into 2 paddocks. One plot (3.4 ha) consisted of a monoculture of Seine tall fescue while the other plot (3.9 ha) consisted of a mixture of Seine tall fescue, AC Grazeland Alfalfa, and Norcen birdsfoot trefoil. The mixture of the second plot consisted of 50% tall fescue, 37.5% alfalfa, and 12.5% birdsfoot trefoil. Plots were designated as monoculture no-creep supplement (MONOC) (1.7 ha), monoculture with creep supplement (MONOS) (1.7 ha), mixed forage no-creep supplement (MIXC) (1.95 ha), and mixed forage with creep supplement (MIXS) (1.95 ha). Twenty-four spring calving cow-calf pairs were stratified into 4 groups based on calf body weight, sex, breed, dam body weight, dam BCS, and breed. Management-intensive grazing practices were implemented with cattle receiving a new allotment of forage at 0800 daily. Cattle grazed in a west-to-east direction across the pasture completing a grazing circuit every 24 to 30 d. Pasture forage production was estimated using a 0.163 m2 clip-plot. Forage production each period was highest for cattle grazing MIXS (4492 kg DM/ha) followed by MIXC (4116 kg DM/ha) (P=.58). Production from the MIX plot differed from MONO plot (P<.0001). Similar to MIX pasture production MONOC (3154 kg/ha) and MONS (3058 kg/ha) did not vary (P=.4324). Carrying capacity differed among all treatments. The highest carrying capacity was observed in the MIXS group with 3.37 pair/ha. The next highest carrying capacity was in the MIXC group at 3.05 pair/ha, which differed from MIXS (P=.0404). There was a difference between MIXC and MONOS (2.38 pair/ha) (P=.0051). The lowest carrying capacity was observed in the MONOC group (2.07 pair/ha), differing from MONOS (P=.0450). Calf end weight was highest for the MIXS group (343 kg) and differed from MONOC group (298 kg) (P=.0272); no other groups differed. Profitability did not follow pasture productivity completely. Due to high supplemental feed costs MIXC was the most profitable management strategy ($72.03 cow/yr) and was $137.50 cow/yr more profitable than the least profitable strategy, MONOS. Results from this study show that grass-legume mixtures are much more productive than grass monocultures under irrigation and management-intensive grazing of cow-calf pairs. In addition, on these forage resources the practice of supplying creep supplementation to high-growth, terminal calves is not economically profitable.

Sagebrush-dominated ecosystems are being transformed by wildfire, rangeland improvement techniques, and exotic plant invasions. These disturbances have substantial effects on the composition and structure of native vegetation, but the effects on ecosystem C and N dynamics are poorly understood. To examine whether differences in dominant vegetation affect the quantity and quality of plant organic matter inputs to soil, ecosystem C and N pools and rates of plant turnover were compared among historically grazed Wyoming big sagebrush, introduced perennial crested wheatgrass, and invasive annual cheatgrass communities. Since low soil moisture during the summer may inhibit the microbial colonization of plant detrital inputs and result in C-limitations to microbial growth, soils were treated with an in situ pulse of plant detritus prior to the onset of the summer dry-season, and rates of soil C and gross N cycling were compared between treated and untreated soils. Finally, because plant detritus is the dominant form of labile C input to soil microbes over a large portion of the year, the decomposition of 13C-labeled annual grass detritus was used to determine the importance of plant detritus versus soil organic matter as microbial substrate. Results revealed large differences in ecosystem C and N pools, and in the quantity of plant C and N inputs to soil among vegetation types, but differences in soil C and N cycling rates were more subtle. Plant biomass pools were greatest for sagebrush stands, but plant C and N inputs to soil were greatest in cheatgrass communities, such that rates of plant C and N turnover appeared to be accelerated in disturbed ecosystems. Earlier release of plant biomass to soil detrital pools stimulated N availability to a greater extent than C availability relative to untreated soils, and this effect could not be predicted from the C:N stoichiometry of plant detritus. Finally, in situ decomposition of cheatgrass detritus was rapid; however, there was no clear evidence of a time-lag during summer in microbial colonization of recently released plant detritus, and microbial consumption of plant detritus did not result in N-limitations to microbial growth.

The primary objective of this study was to examine rice production methods with special emphasis on farm and water irrigation management practices in the different rice farm types of the Guayas Basin of Ecuador. To do this, farmers were divided into eight categories on the basis of farm practices, seasonal farming, irrigation facilities and level of mechanization. Profits per hectare ranged from 4,807 to 762.10 sucres per hectare. Mechanization varied from totally mechanized to total absence of machinery. Year round farming varied to seasonal farming. Average production varied from 110 quintals of hulled rice to 20 quintals per hectare. The preparation of farm budgets for the different types, presented some problems, due to the lack of available records by the small farmers and reluctance to provide data by the large mechanized units. The cost/benefit ratios of changing from one type of farming to another were calculated as well as the labor absorption possibilities for the different types of farming. These could provide a criteria for planification of rice policies in Ecuador.

In addition to the contribution of lipids to food texture and aroma, the effect of lipids on taste perception is now commonly studied. It has been found that lipids may affect taste perception through lipid composition (i.e., cis-polyunsaturated fatty acids). This study assessed the effect of lipid composition on the recognition thresholds of the basic tastes (i.e., sour, umami, bitter, salty, sweet) in emulsion model systems as well as taste intensities perceived at low suprathreshold concentrations. Taste thresholds and intensities in corresponding aqueous systems were determined for comparison. To evaluate the effect of lipid chemical composition on tastant detection, 20% oil emulsions were formulated with either anhydrous milk fat, soybean oil, or a blend comprised of a 1:1 ratio (by weight) of milk fat and soybean oil. Prior to taste testing, emulsions were deemed to have the necessary physicochemical characteristics (i.e., stability, pH, droplet size, viscosity) for use in taste experiments. Thresholds were determined according to the ASTM forced-choice ascending concentration series method using 11 trained panelists. Taste intensities were rated on a numerical scale of zero to 15 by 10 trained panelists. As expected, aqueous thresholds were generally lower than those of respective emulsions; however, these differences were not always found to be significant. Though lipid composition affected emulsion thresholds slightly for all tastes except bitter, a significant relationship between thresholds and fat composition was not established. Taste intensity appears to increase proportionally to increases in tastant concentration at suprathreshold concentrations near recognition threshold. Some results from taste intensity experiments indicate that fatty acid composition may be influencing results, but the implications are unclear based upon these experiments. These results suggest that the role of lipids in taste perception is more complex than simply correlating with an increase in polyunsaturated fatty acids in general.

For many decades, demand for agricultural commodities has remained stagnant and its growth has been limited. In contrast, agricultural production continues to become ever more efficient by increasing output for stable or decreased inputs. Long-run profits have historically been near zero due to an ongoing relative equilibrium. But recent U.S. energy policy has changed to include a Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS), the goal of which is to boost domestic energy independence in an environmentally sound way. Most of the RFS in the near-term relies on the production of 15 billion gallons of ethanol made from corn. This has the effect of creating a new sector of demand for grain corn and subsequently supports rural economies. The RFS creates a new demand for 5.5 billion bushels of corn by 2015. At the corn-ethanol conversion ratio of 2.7 gallons per bushel, this will sustain the production of 15 billion gallons of ethanol. The RFS is a blending floor imposed on gasoline refiners. Ethanol producers, on the other hand, are not forced to supply ethanol. While the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the authority to implement the RFS, it does not have the ability to expand ethanol supplies. The U.S. government has therefore supported the use of ethanol through a current 45 cent tax credit for each gallon of ethanol blended into gasoline. Other financial support programs such as grants and loan guarantees are in place for ethanol refiners. Ethanol in the U.S.is primarily made from the starchy molecules in corn. One bushel of corn in a dry mill ethanol plant will produce approximately 2.7 gallons of ethanol and 17 pounds of dried distillers grains with solubles (DDGS) which can be used in livestock rations. A wet mill plant will produce other by-products. Ethanol can be used directly in the nation's fuel supply at limited levels of blending. Most cars in the United States can withstand the corrosive nature of ethanol in blends of up to 10% or more. But flex-fuel vehicles, which are able to operate on 85% ethanol are increasingly becoming available for sale and their use continues to grow. Corn ethanol is a very complex issue when implemented on such a large scale as the RFS dictates. The amount of transportation fuel actually displaced by its use is a hotly debated topic. In any case, the large scale production of corn ethanol has created a firm link between agricultural markets and the energy sector. Ethanol is also an environmental issue. One of the primary goals of the RFS is to combat global warming and whether or not this is achieved it currently in debate. Aside from the climate change issue, there are other environmental ramifications tied directly to ethanol such as contamination, water use and land-use change. Since the inception of the RFS, price volatility and uncertainty has never been greater. In the first half of 2008, prices for all commodities reached historically high levels. This raises the concern of the impacts with the RFS has on markets other than corn. The livestock industry and other grain markets have been affected to some degree by the RFS. This is in part due to the changing profile of the major trading participants in the commodity trading centers. All of this is related to a structural change which has taken place in the agricultural markets as a result of the RFS. Historical relationships between price, supply and demand have adjusted and currently continue to adjust. The reasons for the adjustments are founded in economic theory regarding system-wide demand shocks. In this case, the demand shock is roughly a net 50% increase in the demand for corn by 2015 compared to the most recent decade. The adjustments which take place can be summarized by three periods. In period 1, the demand curve shifts outward, equilibrium is lost and higher corn prices are observed. In period 2, the market struggles to find a new equilibrium by increasing output. This period is marked by increased volatility and market participants over and under react to price signals until the new equilibrium is discovered. Period three is represented by the discovery of a relative market equilibrium at price higher than previously, but not as high as the initial demand shock. Results from, a fundamental analysis of the grain markets show that the expected market behavior has begun to take place and agriculture finds itself in period 2 of the changes described above. While most of the price changes and acreage shifts can be explained, the degree to which prices have increased are not fully explained. A change in trading center activities (Boards of Trade, etc.) may help to further account for the new prices. A survey of brokers shows that the behavior of commercial traders has significantly changed since RFS implementation. Volatility and uncertainty have ensued. The consequences of the RFS to the farmer have also been significant. Farm income has increased significantly sufficiently to overcome the riding costs of fuel and fertilizer. The risk exposure of farmers has also changed; the data indicates that exposure to risk has increased greatly. However, the farm gate prices have been more than enough to compensate for the changes in risk.

The first essay formulates a dynamic general equilibrium optimal control model of an energy crop as part of a country's planned resource use over a period of time. The model attempts to allocate consumption, production, and factors of production to achieve the country's sustainable development goal. A Cobb-Douglas specification is used for both utility and production functions in the model. We calibrate the model with Thailand data. The selected model is used to generate the stationary state solution and to simulate the optimal policy function and optimal time paths. Two methods are used: a linear approximation method and the Runke-Kutta reverse shooting method. The model provides numerical results that can be used as information for decision makers and stakeholders to devise an economic plan to achieve sustainable development goals. The second essay studies the effect of international trade and changes in labor supply, land supply, and the price of imported energy on energy crop production for bio fuel and food, as well as impacts on social welfare. We develop a dynamic general equilibrium model to describe two baseline scenarios, a closed economy and an open economy. We find that international trade increases welfare and decreases the energy price. Furthermore, resources are allocated to produce more food under the open economy scenario than the quantities produced under a closed economy assumption. An increase in labor supply and land supply result in an increase in social welfare. An increase in imported energy price leads to a welfare loss, higher energy production, and lower food production. The third essay develops a partial equilibrium econometric model to project the impacts of an increase in ethanol production on the Thai agriculture sector over the next ten years. The model is applied to three scenarios for analyzing the effect of government ethanol production targets. The results from the baseline model and scenario analysis indicate that an expansion in ethanol production will result in a significant increase in cassava production, price, and land use. The increase in cassava production will shift land use from maize and sugar cane, thus increasing in price of maize.

One of the more challenging aspects of organic farming is the development of an appropriate fertility plan, which may include crop rotation, cover crops, and/or soil amendments. When fertility is maintained by applying manure and/or compost, a pressing question is how much should be used. A framework was developed to address this question based on the idea of a decay series, which is a sequence of numbers quantifying the effects of compost on crop yield over a multi-year period. Prior research has focused on decay series expressed in nitrogen fertilizer equivalents. Given this information, I show how to calculate what manure/compost rates are needed to meet the nitrogen targets in a multi-crop rotation. Analogous results are presented for when the objective is profit rather than yield maximization. The planning framework is then generalized to include decay series where the carryover effects of manure/compost are measured, not against nitrogen fertilizer, but against new applications of the amendment. This change of basis, from nitrogen fertilizer equivalents to manure/compost equivalents, allows for field research on organically certified land and quantifies non-nutritive effects in a more meaningful way. Two case studies are presented to illustrate how this new type of decay series may be estimated and used to optimize crop production. By using data from a continuous corn (Zea mays L.) system amended with cattle manure slurry, the case study in estimation explores the methodological challenges that arise when the yield response to nitrogen fertilizer is not available as a benchmark. The case study in optimization looks at profit-maximizing compost rates for dryland, organic wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in northern Utah.

The invasive species Saltcedar is affecting water and land resources throughout the western states of America. Because of great water use capabilities and other ecosystem detriments, Saltcedar has been targeted for treatment. For successful management of Saltcedar, individual landowners need to be aware of the costs and benefits of treating Saltcedar. Eleven of the most commonly reported treatment methods were evaluated for firm level economic feasibility. Evaluated on the basis of treatment cost, treatment effectiveness, Saltcedar water-use, and re-vegetation water-use, a production plan of ten years was created for each treatment method. Some treatment methods required re-treatment and were evaluated with re-treatments most commonly found in the literature. Of the treatment methods evaluated, five treatment methods were determined to be most feasible. Landowner valuation of environmental changes in the ecosystem brought on by Saltcedar is very important in the decision of which treatment method to implement. Personal valuation, over a period of ten years, will often determine which treatment methods are most cost efficient.