Everyday an enormous amount of information is stored, processed and transmitted digitally around the world. Neurally-inspired compression models have been rapidly developed and researched as a solution to image processing tasks and channel error correction control. This dissertation presents a deep neural network (DNN) for gray high-resolution image compression and a fault-tolerant transmission system with channel error-correction capabilities. A feed-forward DNN implemented with the Levenberg-Marguardt learning algorithm is proposed and implemented for image compression. I demonstrate experimentally that the DNN not only provides better quality reconstructed images but also requires less computational capacity as compared to DCT Zonal coding, DCT Threshold coding, Set Partitioning in Hierarchical Trees (SPIHT) and Gaussian Pyramid. An artificial neural network (ANN) with improved channel error-correction rate is also proposed. The experimental results indicate that the implemented artificial neural network provides a superior error-correction ability by transmitting binary images over the noisy channel using Hamming and Repeat-Accumulate coding. Meanwhile, the network’s storage requirement is 64 times less than the Hamming coding and 62 times less than the Repeat-Accumulate coding. Thumbnail images contain higher frequencies and much less redundancy, which makes them more difficult to compress compared to high-resolution images. Bottleneck autoencoders have been actively researched as a solution to image compression tasks. However, I observed that thumbnail images compressed at a 2:1 ratio through bottleneck autoencoders often exhibit subjectively low visual quality. In this dissertation, I compared bottleneck autoencoders with two sparse coding approaches. Either 50\% of the pixels are randomly removed or every other pixel is removed, each achieving a 2:1 compression ratio. In the subsequent decompression step, a sparse inference algorithm is used to in-paint the missing the pixel values. Compared to bottleneck autoencoders, I observed that sparse coding with a random dropout mask yields decompressed images that are superior based on subjective human perception yet inferior according to pixel-wise metrics of reconstruction quality, such as PSNR and SSIM. With a regular checkerboard mask, decompressed images were superior as assessed by both subjective and pixel-wise measures. I hypothesized that alternative feature-based measures of reconstruction quality would better support my subjective observations. To test this hypothesis, I fed thumbnail images processed using either bottleneck autoencoder or sparse coding using either checkerboard or random masks into a Deep Convolutional Neural Network (DCNN) classifier. Consistent, with my subjective observations, I discovered that sparse coding with checkerboard and random masks support on average 2.7\% and 1.6\% higher classification accuracy and 18.06\% and 3.74\% lower feature perceptual loss compared to bottleneck autoencoders, implying that sparse coding preserves more feature-based information. The optic nerve transmits visual information to the brain as trains of discrete events, a low-power, low-bandwidth communication channel also exploited by silicon retina cameras. Extracting high-fidelity visual input from retinal event trains is thus a key challenge for both computational neuroscience and neuromorphic engineering. % Here, we investigate whether sparse coding can enable the reconstruction of high-fidelity images and video from retinal event trains. Our approach is analogous to compressive sensing, in which only a random subset of pixels are transmitted and the missing information is estimated via inference. We employed a variant of the Locally Competitive Algorithm to infer sparse representations from retinal event trains, using a dictionary of convolutional features optimized via stochastic gradient descent and trained in an unsupervised manner using a local Hebbian learning rule with momentum. Static images, drawn from the CIFAR10 dataset, were passed to the input layer of an anatomically realistic retinal model and encoded as arrays of output spike trains arising from separate layers of integrate-and-fire neurons representing ON and OFF retinal ganglion cells. The spikes from each model ganglion cell were summed over a 32 msec time window, yielding a noisy rate-coded image. Analogous to how the primary visual cortex is postulated to infer features from noisy spike trains in the optic nerve, we inferred a higher-fidelity sparse reconstruction from the noisy rate-coded image using a convolutional dictionary trained on the original CIFAR10 database. Using a similar approach, we analyzed the asynchronous event trains from a silicon retina camera produced by self-motion through a laboratory environment. By training a dictionary of convolutional spatiotemporal features for simultaneously reconstructing differences of video frames (recorded at 22HZ and 5.56Hz) as well as discrete events generated by the silicon retina (binned at 484Hz and 278Hz), we were able to estimate high frame rate video from a low-power, low-bandwidth silicon retina camera.

Ce travail se situe dans le cadre d'un projet pluridisciplinaire visant à développer une prothèse visuelle. La technique la plus utilisée actuellement dans de nombreux types de neuroprothèses est basée sur l'excitation par voie électrique via des électrdes. Les inconvénients d'une telle technique (très invasive, de faible résolution spatiale et par contact) pourraient être surmontés en utilisant une stimulation par laser infra-rouge. Nous présentons dans un premier temps les caractéristiques des trois diodes lasers fibrés émettant à 1875 nm, 1535 nm et 1470 nm pour des gammes de puissances optiques de quelques centaines de mW qui ont été utilisés et intégrés à deux dispositifs de mesures permettant l'observations de variations d'échanges ioniques transmembranaires (imagerie de fluorescence des ions calciums et mesure électrophysiologique par la technique de patch clamp). Nous montrons ensuite que des réponses biologiques ont été obtenues par les trois lasers, non seulement sur des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine et du vestibule de culture mais aussi sur des tranches de rétine. L'influence des paramètres clés comme la longueur d'onde, la durée de stimulation, les seuils d'énergie a été étudié, et a permis d'établir que les seuils d'énergie de stimulation dépendent de la valeur du coefficient d'absorption de l'eau qui varie suivant la longueur d'onde utilisée. Enfin, une étude est consacrée pour expliquer les mécanismes physiques et biologiques apparaissant au cours de l'interaction du laser avec le neurone au niveau cellulaire. Des simulations numériques quantifiant l'élévation de température associées à des tests pharmacologiques cherchant à déterminer la nature des canaux ioniques spécifiques mis en jeu suggèrent la prédominance d'un effet thermique. / This work is part of a pluridisciplinary project, aiming at developing a visual prosthesis. The most used technique for this kind of neuroprosthesis is based on the electrical stimulation of nerves by electrodes. Drawbacks of such a technique (very intrusive, low spatial resolution and physical contact) could be overcome by the use of an infra red laser based stimulation. We present first the three fibre pigtailed laser diode characteristics emitting few hundred of mW at 1875 nm, 1535 nm and 1470 nm. These lasers have been integrated on two measurement devices (a fluorescence microscope and a microscope using patch clamp recording), for the observation of ionic membrane exchanges. Our results show that action potentials have been obtained by laser stimulation from the three lasers, both on retinal or vestibular ganglion cells from mass cultures and on retinal slices. The effect of key parameters as the wavelength, the stimulation time, the energy thresholds has been studied and show that the energy thresholds clearly depend on the absorption coefficient of water which varies with the wavelength. Finally, we present the results of a preliminary study aiming at determining the biophysical interaction mechanisms at cell level. Numerical simulations giving the local increase of temperature and tests of specific blocking molecules in order to know the exact nature of the ionic channels involved suggest a predominant thermal mechanism.

No description available.

<p>Glaucoma is a leading cause of blindness characterized by the progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), essentially severing the connection between the eye and the brain. Among many underlying causes of the disease, mutations in the Optineurin (OPTN) gene result in severe RGC neurodegeneration in the absence of elevated intraocular pressure, providing a novel opportunity to study molecular mechanisms that lead to RGC neurodegeneration associated with glaucoma. Efforts of this study establishing a human pluripotent stem cell (hPSC)-derived in vitro disease model by inserting OPTN(E50K) mutation via CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing and investigate the cellular mechanisms of RGC neurodegeneration associated with glaucoma. OPTN(E50K) RGCs revealed neurodegeneration phenotypes, including downregulation of RGCs transcription factors, neurite retraction, and hyperexcitability, suggesting that OPTN(E50K) RGCs can serve as an appropriate disease model to study glaucoma-associated neurodegeneration. Since OPTN serves a primary role as an autophagy receptor, we further hypothesized that the OPTN(E50K) mutation disrupts autophagy in RGCs, and modulation of autophagy by mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-independent pathways can preserve RGC phenotypes by maintaining mTOR signaling. OPTN(E50K) RGCs exhibited a higher number of OPTN puncta along with an overall reduced expression of OPTN protein, indicating a gain of toxic protein accumulation or loss of protein function. Furthermore, OPTN(E50K) RGCs revealed an accumulation of the autophagosome protein LC3 in a punctal manner as well as increased expression of lysosomal proteins, suggesting a disruption of degradation pathway in autophagosome and lysosome fusion. As mTOR complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling serves as a negative regulator of autophagy, a downregulation of mTORC1 signaling via activation of stress sensor adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) was observed as a possible compensatory mechanism for autophagy deficits in OPTN(E50K) RGCs. Pharmacological inhibition of mTOR in wild-type hRGCs resulted in similar disease-related phenotypes, while preservation of the mTOR pathway in OPTN(E50K) RGCs by treatment with the mTOR-independent autophagy modulator trehalose cleared OPTN accumulated puncta, preserving mTORC1 signaling, as well as rescuing neurodegenerative phenotypes. To further validate these associations in an animal model, the microbead occlusion mouse model was established by injection of magnetic microbeads in the anterior chamber to block aqueous outflow resulting ocular hypertension. In agreement with our findings in hRGCs, a decrease in mTOR signaling associated with an increase in the expression of autophagy-associated proteins was observed in RGCs in the microbead occlusion model. Additionally, these disease-related phenotypes were observed specifically within RGCs but not cortical neurons with an underlying OPTN(E50K) mutation, demonstrating that autophagy represents an essential pathway in RGCs to maintain homeostasis, and selective disrupt of autophagy in RGCs leads to neurodegeneration. Taken together, the results of this study highlight an essential balance between autophagy and mTORC1 signaling that is essential for the homeostasis of RGCs, while disruption to these signaling pathways contributes to neurodegenerative features in glaucoma. These results also demonstrated the ability to pharmacologically intervene to experimentally manipulate these pathways and rescue neurodegenerative phenotypes, providing a potential therapeutic target to prevent glaucoma-associated neurodegeneration. </p>

No description available.

La détérioration de la barrière hémato rétinienne et l'oedème maculaire consécutif est une manifestation cardinale de la rétinopathie diabétique (RD) et la caractéristique clinique la plus étroitement associée à la perte de la vue. Alors que l'oedème maculaire affecte plus de 25% des patients souffrant de diabète, les modalités de traitement actuellement disponibles tels que les corticostéroïdes administrés localement et les thérapies anti-VEGF récemment approuvés présentent plusieurs inconvénients. Bien que le lien entre une rupture de l’unité neuro-vasculaire et la pathogénèse de la RD ait récemment été établi, l’influence de la signalisation neuro-vasculaire sur la vasculopathie oculaire diabetique a jusqu’à présent reçu peu d’attention. Ici, à l’aide d’ètudes humaines et animales, nous fournissons la première preuve du rôle essentiel de la molécule de guidage neuronale classique Sémaphorine 3A dans l’instigation de la perméabilité vasculaire maculaire pathologique dans le diabète de type 1. L’étude de la dynamique d’expression de Sémaphorine 3A révèle que cette dernière est induite dans les phases précoces hyperglycèmiques du diabète dans la rétine neuronale et participe à la rupture initiale de la fonction de barrière endothéliale. En utilisant le modèle de souris streptozotocine pour simuler la rétinopathie diabétique humaine, nous avons démontré par une série d’approches analogue que la neutralisation de Sémaphorine 3A empêche de façon efficace une fuite vasculaire rétinienne. Nos résultats identifient une nouvelle cible thérapeutique pour l’oedème maculaire diabétique en plus de fournir d’autres preuves de communication neuro-vasculaire dans la pathogènese de la RD. / The deterioration of the blood retinal barrier and consequent macular edema is a cardinal manifestation of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and the clinical feature most closely associated with loss of sight. While macular edema affects over 25% of patients suffering from diabetes, currently available treatment modalities such as locally administered corticosteroids and recently approved anti-VEGF therapies, present several drawbacks. Although recent insight on the pathogenesis of DR points to a breakdown in the neurovascular unit, neurovascular cross-talk and its influence on diabetic ocular vasculopathy has thus far received limited attention. Here we provide the first evidence from both human and animal studies for the critical role of the classical neuronal guidance cue Semaphorin3A in instigating pathological macular vascular permeability in type I diabetes. Investigation of the dynamics of expression reveal that Semaphorin3A is induced in the early hyperglycemic phases of diabetes within the neuronal retina and precipitates initial breakdown of endothelial barrier function. Using the streptozotocin mouse model as a proxy for human diabetic retinopathy, we demonstrate by a series of orthogonal approaches (gene silencing or treatment with soluble Neuropilin-1 employed as a Semaphorin3A trap), that neutralization of Semaphorin3A efficiently prevents retinal vascular leakage. Our findings identify a new therapeutic target for DME and provide further evidence for neurovascular cross-talk in pathogenesis of DR.

Le glaucome est la première cause de cécité irréversible à travers le monde. À présent il n’existe aucun remède au glaucome, et les thérapies adoptées sont souvent inadéquates. La perte de vision causée par le glaucome est due à la mort sélective des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires, les neurones qui envoient de l’information visuelle de la rétine au cerveau. Le mécanisme principal menant au dommage des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires lors du glaucome n’est pas bien compris, mais quelques responsables putatifs ont été proposés tels que l’excitotoxicité, le manque de neurotrophines, la compression mécanique, l’ischémie, les astrocytes réactifs et le stress oxidatif, parmis d’autres. Indépendamment de la cause, il est bien établi que la perte des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires lors du glaucome est causée par la mort cellulaire programmée apoptotique. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires précis qui déclenchent l’apoptose dans les cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires adultes sont mal définis. Pour aborder ce point, j’ai avancé l’hypothèse centrale que l’identification de voies de signalisations moléculaires impliquées dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires offrirait des avenues thérapeutiques pour ralentir ou même prévenir la mort de celles-ci lors de neuropathies oculaires telles que le glaucome. Dans la première partie de ma thèse, j’ai caractérisé le rôle de la famille de protéines stimulatrices d’apoptose de p53 (ASPP), protéines régulatrices de la famille p53, dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. p53 est un facteur de transcription nucléaire impliqué dans des fonctions cellulaires variant de la transcription à l’apoptose. Les membres de la famille ASPP, soit ASPP1, ASPP2 et iASPP, sont des protéines de liaison de p53 qui régulent l’apoptose. Pourtant, le rôle de la famille des ASPP dans la mort des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires est inconnu. ASPP1 et ASPP2 étant pro-apoptotiques, l’hypothèse de cette première étude est que la baisse ciblée de ASPP1 et ASPP2 promouvrait la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires après une blessure du nerf optique. Nous avons utilisé un modèle expérimental bien caractérisé de mort apoptotique neuronale induite par axotomie du nerf optique chez le rat de type Sprague Dawley. Les résultats de cette étude (Wilson et al. Journal of Neuroscience, 2013) ont démontré que p53 est impliqué dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires, et qu’une baisse ciblée de ASPP1 et ASPP2 par acide ribonucléique d’interference promeut la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. Dans la deuxième partie de ma thèse, j’ai caractérisé le rôle d’iASPP, le membre anti-apoptotique de la famille des ASPP, dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. L’hypothèse de cette seconde étude est que la surexpression d’iASPP promouvrait la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires après axotomie. Mes résultats (Wilson et al. PLoS ONE, 2014) démontrent que le knockdown ciblé de iASPP exacerbe la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires, et que la surexpression de iASPP par virus adéno-associé promeut la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. En conclusion, les résultats présentés dans cette thèse contribuent à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes régulateurs sous-jacents la perte de cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires par apoptose et pourraient fournir des pistes pour la conception de nouvelles stratégies neuroprotectrices pour le traitement de maladies neurodégénératives telles que le glaucome. / Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. At present, there is no cure for glaucoma, and current therapies are often inadequate. Loss of vision in glaucoma results from the death of retinal ganglion cells, the neurons that send visual information from the retina to the brain. The principal mechanism leading to retinal ganglion cell damage during glaucoma is not well understood, however, putative culprits have been proposed including excitotoxicity, neurotrophin deprivation, mechanical compression, ischemia, reactive astrocytes and oxidative stress. It is well established that retinal ganglion cell loss during glaucoma is caused by apoptotic programmed cell death, however, the precise mechanisms that lead to apoptotic death of adult retinal ganglion cells are poorly defined. To address this point, I put forth the central hypothesis that the identification of signaling pathways involved in apoptotic retinal ganglion cell death would offer therapeutic avenues to slow or prevent retinal ganglion cell death during ocular neuropathies such as glaucoma. In the first part of my thesis, I characterised the role of Apoptosis Stimulating Protein of p53 family (ASPP) proteins, which are regulators of p53, in the apoptotic death of retinal ganglion cells. p53 is a nuclear transcription factor implicated in cellular functions ranging from transcription to apoptosis. ASPP family members ASPP1, ASPP2 and iASPP are p53 binding proteins that belong to a family of protein regulators of p53-dependent apoptotic death. However, the role of ASPP family members in retinal ganglion cell death is unknown. As ASPP1 and ASPP2 are pro-apoptotic, the hypothesis of our first study was that the knockdown of ASPP1 and ASPP2 gene expression would lead to retinal ganglion cell survival after an optic nerve lesion. We used a well-characterized experimental model of neuronal apoptosis induced by optic nerve axotomy in Sprague Dawley rats. The results of this study (Wilson et al. Journal of Neuroscience, 2013) demonstrated that p53 is implicated in retinal ganglion cell death, and that targeted knockdown of ASPP1 and ASPP2 by short interference ribonucleic acid promotes retinal ganglion cell survival. The knockdown of ASPP2 correlates with a reduction in the levels of pro-apoptotic p53 regulated targets PUMA and Fas/CD95. In the second part of my thesis, I characterized the role of the anti-apoptotic member of the ASPP family, iASPP, in the apoptotic death of retinal ganglion cells. The hypothesis of this second study is that the overexpression of iASPP would promote retinal ganglion cell survival after axotomy. The data (Wilson et al. PLoS ONE, 2014) demonstrate that the targeted knockdown of iASPP by short interference ribonucleic acid exacerbates retinal ganglion cell death, and that the overexpression of iASPP by adeno-associated virus promotes retinal ganglion cell survival. The overexpression of iASPP correlates with a reduction in protein levels of PUMA and Fas/CD95. In conclusion, the findings presented in this thesis contribute to a better understanding of the pathological mechanisms underlying retinal ganglion cell loss by apoptosis and might provide insights into the design of novel neuroprotective treatments for neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma.

La détérioration de la barrière hémato rétinienne et l'oedème maculaire consécutif est une manifestation cardinale de la rétinopathie diabétique (RD) et la caractéristique clinique la plus étroitement associée à la perte de la vue. Alors que l'oedème maculaire affecte plus de 25% des patients souffrant de diabète, les modalités de traitement actuellement disponibles tels que les corticostéroïdes administrés localement et les thérapies anti-VEGF récemment approuvés présentent plusieurs inconvénients. Bien que le lien entre une rupture de l’unité neuro-vasculaire et la pathogénèse de la RD ait récemment été établi, l’influence de la signalisation neuro-vasculaire sur la vasculopathie oculaire diabetique a jusqu’à présent reçu peu d’attention. Ici, à l’aide d’ètudes humaines et animales, nous fournissons la première preuve du rôle essentiel de la molécule de guidage neuronale classique Sémaphorine 3A dans l’instigation de la perméabilité vasculaire maculaire pathologique dans le diabète de type 1. L’étude de la dynamique d’expression de Sémaphorine 3A révèle que cette dernière est induite dans les phases précoces hyperglycèmiques du diabète dans la rétine neuronale et participe à la rupture initiale de la fonction de barrière endothéliale. En utilisant le modèle de souris streptozotocine pour simuler la rétinopathie diabétique humaine, nous avons démontré par une série d’approches analogue que la neutralisation de Sémaphorine 3A empêche de façon efficace une fuite vasculaire rétinienne. Nos résultats identifient une nouvelle cible thérapeutique pour l’oedème maculaire diabétique en plus de fournir d’autres preuves de communication neuro-vasculaire dans la pathogènese de la RD. / The deterioration of the blood retinal barrier and consequent macular edema is a cardinal manifestation of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and the clinical feature most closely associated with loss of sight. While macular edema affects over 25% of patients suffering from diabetes, currently available treatment modalities such as locally administered corticosteroids and recently approved anti-VEGF therapies, present several drawbacks. Although recent insight on the pathogenesis of DR points to a breakdown in the neurovascular unit, neurovascular cross-talk and its influence on diabetic ocular vasculopathy has thus far received limited attention. Here we provide the first evidence from both human and animal studies for the critical role of the classical neuronal guidance cue Semaphorin3A in instigating pathological macular vascular permeability in type I diabetes. Investigation of the dynamics of expression reveal that Semaphorin3A is induced in the early hyperglycemic phases of diabetes within the neuronal retina and precipitates initial breakdown of endothelial barrier function. Using the streptozotocin mouse model as a proxy for human diabetic retinopathy, we demonstrate by a series of orthogonal approaches (gene silencing or treatment with soluble Neuropilin-1 employed as a Semaphorin3A trap), that neutralization of Semaphorin3A efficiently prevents retinal vascular leakage. Our findings identify a new therapeutic target for DME and provide further evidence for neurovascular cross-talk in pathogenesis of DR.

Le glaucome est la première cause de cécité irréversible à travers le monde. À présent il n’existe aucun remède au glaucome, et les thérapies adoptées sont souvent inadéquates. La perte de vision causée par le glaucome est due à la mort sélective des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires, les neurones qui envoient de l’information visuelle de la rétine au cerveau. Le mécanisme principal menant au dommage des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires lors du glaucome n’est pas bien compris, mais quelques responsables putatifs ont été proposés tels que l’excitotoxicité, le manque de neurotrophines, la compression mécanique, l’ischémie, les astrocytes réactifs et le stress oxidatif, parmis d’autres. Indépendamment de la cause, il est bien établi que la perte des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires lors du glaucome est causée par la mort cellulaire programmée apoptotique. Cependant, les mécanismes moléculaires précis qui déclenchent l’apoptose dans les cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires adultes sont mal définis. Pour aborder ce point, j’ai avancé l’hypothèse centrale que l’identification de voies de signalisations moléculaires impliquées dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires offrirait des avenues thérapeutiques pour ralentir ou même prévenir la mort de celles-ci lors de neuropathies oculaires telles que le glaucome. Dans la première partie de ma thèse, j’ai caractérisé le rôle de la famille de protéines stimulatrices d’apoptose de p53 (ASPP), protéines régulatrices de la famille p53, dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. p53 est un facteur de transcription nucléaire impliqué dans des fonctions cellulaires variant de la transcription à l’apoptose. Les membres de la famille ASPP, soit ASPP1, ASPP2 et iASPP, sont des protéines de liaison de p53 qui régulent l’apoptose. Pourtant, le rôle de la famille des ASPP dans la mort des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires est inconnu. ASPP1 et ASPP2 étant pro-apoptotiques, l’hypothèse de cette première étude est que la baisse ciblée de ASPP1 et ASPP2 promouvrait la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires après une blessure du nerf optique. Nous avons utilisé un modèle expérimental bien caractérisé de mort apoptotique neuronale induite par axotomie du nerf optique chez le rat de type Sprague Dawley. Les résultats de cette étude (Wilson et al. Journal of Neuroscience, 2013) ont démontré que p53 est impliqué dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires, et qu’une baisse ciblée de ASPP1 et ASPP2 par acide ribonucléique d’interference promeut la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. Dans la deuxième partie de ma thèse, j’ai caractérisé le rôle d’iASPP, le membre anti-apoptotique de la famille des ASPP, dans la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. L’hypothèse de cette seconde étude est que la surexpression d’iASPP promouvrait la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires après axotomie. Mes résultats (Wilson et al. PLoS ONE, 2014) démontrent que le knockdown ciblé de iASPP exacerbe la mort apoptotique des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires, et que la surexpression de iASPP par virus adéno-associé promeut la survie des cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires. En conclusion, les résultats présentés dans cette thèse contribuent à une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes régulateurs sous-jacents la perte de cellules rétiniennes ganglionnaires par apoptose et pourraient fournir des pistes pour la conception de nouvelles stratégies neuroprotectrices pour le traitement de maladies neurodégénératives telles que le glaucome. / Glaucoma is the leading cause of irreversible blindness worldwide. At present, there is no cure for glaucoma, and current therapies are often inadequate. Loss of vision in glaucoma results from the death of retinal ganglion cells, the neurons that send visual information from the retina to the brain. The principal mechanism leading to retinal ganglion cell damage during glaucoma is not well understood, however, putative culprits have been proposed including excitotoxicity, neurotrophin deprivation, mechanical compression, ischemia, reactive astrocytes and oxidative stress. It is well established that retinal ganglion cell loss during glaucoma is caused by apoptotic programmed cell death, however, the precise mechanisms that lead to apoptotic death of adult retinal ganglion cells are poorly defined. To address this point, I put forth the central hypothesis that the identification of signaling pathways involved in apoptotic retinal ganglion cell death would offer therapeutic avenues to slow or prevent retinal ganglion cell death during ocular neuropathies such as glaucoma. In the first part of my thesis, I characterised the role of Apoptosis Stimulating Protein of p53 family (ASPP) proteins, which are regulators of p53, in the apoptotic death of retinal ganglion cells. p53 is a nuclear transcription factor implicated in cellular functions ranging from transcription to apoptosis. ASPP family members ASPP1, ASPP2 and iASPP are p53 binding proteins that belong to a family of protein regulators of p53-dependent apoptotic death. However, the role of ASPP family members in retinal ganglion cell death is unknown. As ASPP1 and ASPP2 are pro-apoptotic, the hypothesis of our first study was that the knockdown of ASPP1 and ASPP2 gene expression would lead to retinal ganglion cell survival after an optic nerve lesion. We used a well-characterized experimental model of neuronal apoptosis induced by optic nerve axotomy in Sprague Dawley rats. The results of this study (Wilson et al. Journal of Neuroscience, 2013) demonstrated that p53 is implicated in retinal ganglion cell death, and that targeted knockdown of ASPP1 and ASPP2 by short interference ribonucleic acid promotes retinal ganglion cell survival. The knockdown of ASPP2 correlates with a reduction in the levels of pro-apoptotic p53 regulated targets PUMA and Fas/CD95. In the second part of my thesis, I characterized the role of the anti-apoptotic member of the ASPP family, iASPP, in the apoptotic death of retinal ganglion cells. The hypothesis of this second study is that the overexpression of iASPP would promote retinal ganglion cell survival after axotomy. The data (Wilson et al. PLoS ONE, 2014) demonstrate that the targeted knockdown of iASPP by short interference ribonucleic acid exacerbates retinal ganglion cell death, and that the overexpression of iASPP by adeno-associated virus promotes retinal ganglion cell survival. The overexpression of iASPP correlates with a reduction in protein levels of PUMA and Fas/CD95. In conclusion, the findings presented in this thesis contribute to a better understanding of the pathological mechanisms underlying retinal ganglion cell loss by apoptosis and might provide insights into the design of novel neuroprotective treatments for neurodegenerative diseases such as glaucoma.

<p>Human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) are an attractive tool for the study of different neurodegenerative diseases due to their potential to form any cell type of the body. Due to their versatility and self-renewal capacity, they have different applications such as disease modeling, high throughput drug screening and transplantation. Different animal models have helped answer broader questions related to the physiological functioning of various pathways and the phenotypic effects of a particular neurodegenerative disease. However, due to the lack of success recapitulating some targets identified from animal models into successful clinical trials, there is a need for a direct translational disease model. Since their advent, hPSCs have helped understand various disease effectors and underlying mechanisms using genetic engineering techniques, omics studies and reductionist approaches for the recognition of candidate molecules or pathways required to answer questions related to neurodevelopment, neurodegeneration and neuroregeneration. Due to the simplified approach that iPSC models can provide, some <em>in vitro</em> approaches are being developed using microphysiological systems (MPS) that could answer complex physiological questions. MPS encompass all the different <em>in vitro</em> systems that could help better mimic certain physiological systems that tend to not be mimicked by <em>in vivo</em> models. In this dissertation, efforts have been directed to disease model as well as to understand the intrinsic as well as extrinsic cues using two different MPS. First, we have used hPSCs with Alzheimer’s disease (AD)-related mutations to differentiate into retinal organoids and identify AD related phenotypes for future studies to identify retinal AD biomarkers. Using 5 month old retinal organoids from AD cell lines as well as controls, we could identify retinal AD phenotypes such as an increase in Aβ42:Aβ40 ratio along with increase in pTau:Tau. Nanostring analyses also helped in identification of potential target genes that are modulated in retinal AD that were related to synaptic dysfunction.  Thus, using retinal organoids for the identification of retinal AD phenotypes could help delve deeper into the identification of future potential biomarkers in the retina of AD patients, with the potential to serve as a means for early identification and intervention for patients. The next MPS we used to serve to explore non-cell autonomous effects associated with glaucoma to explore the neurovascular unit. Previous studies have demonstrated the degeneration of RGCs in glaucoma due to a point mutation OPTN(E50K) that leads to the degeneration of RGCs both at morphological and functional levels. Thus, using the previous studies as a basis, we wanted to further unravel the impact of this mutation using the different cell types of the neurovascular unit such as endothelial cells, astrocytes and RGCs. Interestingly, we observed the barrier properties being impacted by the mutation present in both RGCs and astrocytes demonstrated through TEER, permeability and transcellular transport changes. We also identified a potential factor TGFβ2 that was observed to be overproduced by the OPTN E50K astrocytes to demonstrate similar effects with the exogenous addition of TGFβ2 on the barrier. Furthermore, the inhibition of TGFβ2 helped rescue some of the barrier dysfunction phenotypes. Thus, TGFβ2 inhibition can be used as a potential candidate that can be used to further study its impact in <em>in vivo</em> models and how that can be used in translational applications. Thus, MPS systems have a lot of applications that can help answer different physiologically relevant questions that are hard to approach using <em>in vivo</em> models and the further development of these systems to accentuate the aspects of neural development and how it goes awry in different neurodegenerative diseases.  </p>