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This thesis investigates the development of regional drainage patterns within intra-continental rift basins using remote sensing data, field studies and numerical models. By examining modern-day extensional settings, such as the Basin and Range, USA, and the East African Rift System (EARS), this study elucidates the controls upon regional source-to-sink systems and assesses the findings in relation to existing, conceptual tectono-stratigraphic and drainage models. Rift basins are generally well studied and facies models well established. However, there is a tendency to overlook the regional perspective. Many drainage evolution studies and tectono-stratigraphic models focus upon the development of individual basin-bounding faults and half-grabens, often overlooking the influence of regional-scale drainage evolution upon landscape and stratigraphic development. On a regional scale, extensional basins are segmented into numerous sub-basins, which: (i) exist at different elevations; (ii) subside at different rates; (iii) vary in their degree of fluvial connectivity; and, (iv) may experience significant shifts between erosional and depositional regimes as drainage networks evolve. Through observations of the Basin and Range, and three-dimensional numerical modelling, it is shown how sub-basins with identical tectonic and climatic boundary conditions can exhibit vastly different stratigraphic fills depending on the degree of fluvial connectivity and their relationship to adjacent sub-basins. In addition, drainage integration is recognised as an overlooked, yet important process in the source-to-sink evolution of rift basins. Drainage integration between sub-basins of varying elevations is shown to cause widespread erosion and sediment bypass in the upstream basin, while contemporaneously increasing sediment supply to the downstream basin. A case study of the Tecopa Basin shows drainage integration as a powerful driver of base level fall and landscape transience in the absence of significant tectonic or eustatic controls. The differential gradients created by base level fall cause further upstream drainage rearrangements. To understand the evolution of regional hinterland drainages, two rift segments of varying maturity are compared. The Okavango Rift Zone represents a rift initiation phase segment while the Albertine Rift represents a rift climax phase segment. Through analysis of the contributing drainage patterns a model is proposed where early rift drainage is dominated by antecedent directions, with large, low relief, low slope catchments. As rifts mature catchments increase in relief and slope but reduce in asymmetry as the influence of antecedent drainage direction is reduced via tectonic tilting, drainage reversals and ponding. The thesis concludes that current tectono-stratigraphic models of sub-aerial rift settings commonly overlook the role of inter-basin erosion, under-appreciate the influence of antecedent drainage direction in hinterland input, and over-emphasise the role of axial rivers. Future tectono-stratigraphic models should acknowledge distinctions based upon the degree of fluvial connectivity (isolated or integrated sub-basins) and the regional position relative to adjacent sub-basins (upstream and terminal and sub-basins).

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The Triassic Cow Branch Formation of the Dan River Basin is host to a world-class lagerstätte deposit of exceptionally preserved insects, among other organisms. The lagerstätte occurs within a cyclic, lacustrine sedimentary succession, hypothesized to have been driven by Milankovitch climate forcing. Through an integrated sedimentological and geochemical investigation, I present evidence that the lagerstätte was deposited during a lake transgression, under intermittently anoxic and ferruginous conditions. Sedimentological evidence shows a deepening followed by shoaling through a broad fining and subsequent coarsening of the sedimentary units of the sequence. This transition in grain size occurs at the lagerstätte. Despite relatively quartz-rich sediments sourced to the basin, silica-content in the studied cycle is exceptionally low. The replacement of silica by the zeolite mineral analcime, coupled with primary dolomite precipitation suggests alkaline lake water. Geochemical evidence, including total organic carbon (TOC), pyrite sulfur and iron speciation data suggest anoxic, ferruginous waters. At the lagerstätte interval, TOC content increases significantly, coinciding with the presence of darker, more laminated sedimentary lithofacies. At the interval of the highest TOC content, a spike in pyrite sulfur content occurs; likely the result of slowed sedimentation. Organic carbon-to-pyrite sulfur ratios suggest however, that the lake water was sulfate-poor and the deep waters never became euxinic (anoxic, H2S-containing). Iron proxy data show that the studied portion of the Cow Branch Formation deposited under intermittent to persistent anoxic conditions. These data suggest a confluence of factors — lake transgression, combined with alkaline and anoxic, ferruginous water chemistry — created an ideal scenario that led to lagerstätte formation. / Master of Science

A Bacia de Campos está limitada pelo Alto de Vitória ao Norte e pelo Alto de Florianópolis ao sul, possuindo uma área de aproximadamente 100.000 km2. Sua seção rifte é composta pela porção basal a mediana do Grupo Lagoa Feia, e inclui a principal rocha geradora da bacia, reconhecidamente rica em matéria orgânica, sendo a maior produtora de hidrocarbonetos do Brasil, e rochas reservatório carbonáticas. O presente estudo foca sua análise no intervalo rifte, onde foi realizada uma interpretação e mapeamento sistemático de linhas sísmicas 2D em uma área chave da bacia. Esta análise é baseada em adaptações de modelos já existentes de evolução de bacias rifte, e nos conceitos de estratigrafia de sequências aplicados à sismoestratigrafia. Através da interpretação e mapeamento das seções sísmicas, foi possível elaborar um modelo evolutivo para a fase inicial da Bacia de Campos, com a elaboração de uma carta cronoestratigráfica e estabelecimento dos tratos de sistemas que distinguem as diferentes fases de evolução dos meio-grábens reconhecidos. O resultado foi a delimitação de três tratos de sistemas tectônicos, que permitiram uma compreensão detalhada da complexa evolução e desenvolvimento das calhas da Bacia de Campos durante a fase rifte. / The Campos Basin is limited northward by the Vitória High and southward by the Florianópolis High, with an area of approximately 100,000 km2. The rift section in the Campos Basin comprises the basal and median portions of the Lagoa Feia Group, and includes the main source rocks in the basin, which is known to be rich in organic matter and is the best hydrocarbon producer in Brazil, as well as carbonate reservoir rocks. The present study focuses its analysis on the rift section, where a systematic mapping and interpretation of 2D seismic lines in a key area of the basin was carried out. This analysis is based on adaptations of existing evolution models for rift basins, and the concepts of sequence stratigraphy applied to seismic stratigraphy. Through the interpretation and mapping of seismic sections, it was possible to propose an evolution model for the initial phase of the Campos Basin, with the construction of a chronostratigraphic chart and the establishment of systems tracts that distinguish different stages on the evolution of the recognized half-grabens. The result was the delimitation of three tectonic systems tracts that allowed the detailed understanding of the complex evolution and trough development of the Campos Basin during the rift phase.

A Bacia de Campos está limitada pelo Alto de Vitória ao Norte e pelo Alto de Florianópolis ao sul, possuindo uma área de aproximadamente 100.000 km2. Sua seção rifte é composta pela porção basal a mediana do Grupo Lagoa Feia, e inclui a principal rocha geradora da bacia, reconhecidamente rica em matéria orgânica, sendo a maior produtora de hidrocarbonetos do Brasil, e rochas reservatório carbonáticas. O presente estudo foca sua análise no intervalo rifte, onde foi realizada uma interpretação e mapeamento sistemático de linhas sísmicas 2D em uma área chave da bacia. Esta análise é baseada em adaptações de modelos já existentes de evolução de bacias rifte, e nos conceitos de estratigrafia de sequências aplicados à sismoestratigrafia. Através da interpretação e mapeamento das seções sísmicas, foi possível elaborar um modelo evolutivo para a fase inicial da Bacia de Campos, com a elaboração de uma carta cronoestratigráfica e estabelecimento dos tratos de sistemas que distinguem as diferentes fases de evolução dos meio-grábens reconhecidos. O resultado foi a delimitação de três tratos de sistemas tectônicos, que permitiram uma compreensão detalhada da complexa evolução e desenvolvimento das calhas da Bacia de Campos durante a fase rifte. / The Campos Basin is limited northward by the Vitória High and southward by the Florianópolis High, with an area of approximately 100,000 km2. The rift section in the Campos Basin comprises the basal and median portions of the Lagoa Feia Group, and includes the main source rocks in the basin, which is known to be rich in organic matter and is the best hydrocarbon producer in Brazil, as well as carbonate reservoir rocks. The present study focuses its analysis on the rift section, where a systematic mapping and interpretation of 2D seismic lines in a key area of the basin was carried out. This analysis is based on adaptations of existing evolution models for rift basins, and the concepts of sequence stratigraphy applied to seismic stratigraphy. Through the interpretation and mapping of seismic sections, it was possible to propose an evolution model for the initial phase of the Campos Basin, with the construction of a chronostratigraphic chart and the establishment of systems tracts that distinguish different stages on the evolution of the recognized half-grabens. The result was the delimitation of three tectonic systems tracts that allowed the detailed understanding of the complex evolution and trough development of the Campos Basin during the rift phase.

A Bacia de Campos está limitada pelo Alto de Vitória ao Norte e pelo Alto de Florianópolis ao sul, possuindo uma área de aproximadamente 100.000 km2. Sua seção rifte é composta pela porção basal a mediana do Grupo Lagoa Feia, e inclui a principal rocha geradora da bacia, reconhecidamente rica em matéria orgânica, sendo a maior produtora de hidrocarbonetos do Brasil, e rochas reservatório carbonáticas. O presente estudo foca sua análise no intervalo rifte, onde foi realizada uma interpretação e mapeamento sistemático de linhas sísmicas 2D em uma área chave da bacia. Esta análise é baseada em adaptações de modelos já existentes de evolução de bacias rifte, e nos conceitos de estratigrafia de sequências aplicados à sismoestratigrafia. Através da interpretação e mapeamento das seções sísmicas, foi possível elaborar um modelo evolutivo para a fase inicial da Bacia de Campos, com a elaboração de uma carta cronoestratigráfica e estabelecimento dos tratos de sistemas que distinguem as diferentes fases de evolução dos meio-grábens reconhecidos. O resultado foi a delimitação de três tratos de sistemas tectônicos, que permitiram uma compreensão detalhada da complexa evolução e desenvolvimento das calhas da Bacia de Campos durante a fase rifte. / The Campos Basin is limited northward by the Vitória High and southward by the Florianópolis High, with an area of approximately 100,000 km2. The rift section in the Campos Basin comprises the basal and median portions of the Lagoa Feia Group, and includes the main source rocks in the basin, which is known to be rich in organic matter and is the best hydrocarbon producer in Brazil, as well as carbonate reservoir rocks. The present study focuses its analysis on the rift section, where a systematic mapping and interpretation of 2D seismic lines in a key area of the basin was carried out. This analysis is based on adaptations of existing evolution models for rift basins, and the concepts of sequence stratigraphy applied to seismic stratigraphy. Through the interpretation and mapping of seismic sections, it was possible to propose an evolution model for the initial phase of the Campos Basin, with the construction of a chronostratigraphic chart and the establishment of systems tracts that distinguish different stages on the evolution of the recognized half-grabens. The result was the delimitation of three tectonic systems tracts that allowed the detailed understanding of the complex evolution and trough development of the Campos Basin during the rift phase.

The purpose of this work is split into two categories, the first was to analyse the application of real-time Physics Engine software libraries for use in calculating a geological numerical model. Second was the analysis of the applicability of glyph and implicit surface based visualization techniques to explore fault systems produced by the model. The current state of the art in Physics Engines was explored by redeveloping a Discrete Element Model to be calculated using NVIDIA's PhysX engine. Analyses regarding the suitability of the engine in terms of numerical accuracy and developmental capabilities is given, as well as the definition of a specialised and bespoke parallelisation technique. The use of various glyph based visualizations is explored to define a new standardised taxonomy for geological data and the MetaBall visualization technique was applied to reveal three dimensional fault structures as an implicit surface. Qualitative analysis was undertaken in the form of a user study, comprising of interviews with expert geologists. The processing pipeline used by many Physics Engines was found to be comparable to the design of Discrete Element Model software, however, aspects of their design, such as integration accuracy, limitation to single precision floating point and imposed limits on the scale of n-body problem means their suitability is restricted to specific modelling cases. Glyph and implicit surface based visualization have been shown to be an effective way to present a geological Discrete Element Model, with the majority of experts interviewed able to perceive the fault structures that it contained. Development of a new engine, or modification of one that exists in accordance with the findings of this thesis would result in a library extremely well suited to the problem of rigid-body simulation for the sciences.

The Ottawa Embayment is a intracratonic rift basin that preserves a unique and eventful history through deep time. Its evolution records opening of the Iapetus Ocean with the break-up of Rodinia, followed by the formation of a continental passive margin, trapping siliciclastic sediments eroded from the adjacent Grenville Province. Samples were collected from a transect across the crystalline rift flank and through the embayment. We investigate the influence of crystallinitiy and non-ideal crystal chapes on He diffusion and resulting zircon (U-Th)/He age with the use of zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronometry, raman spectroscopy and x-ray micro-computed tomography. We then integrate our thermochronology data with regional geology to utilize multi-sample numerical modelling to improve our understanding of the thermal history of the Ottawa Embayment and the evolution of intracratonic rift basins. The works collected within define a comprehensive temperature-time history for the basin and rift flank from the Late-Mesoproterozoic to present day.

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