Solid Energy New Zealand plans to mine a 6 to 10m thick coal seam below the Mt. Augustus and Mt. Fredrick ridgeline at Stockton Mine near Westport, NZ. The coal is covered by up to 30m of overburden, which requires removal to access 4 million tones of high quality coal. However, the Coal Mining Lease boundary (CML) is located just below the basal coal measures and the neighbouring land is owned by the Department of Conservation (DoC). In addition, the neighbouring DoC estate is Powelliphanta Augustus snail habitat. It is necessary to remove the overburden without releasing any material above natural discharge levels onto the DoC land. In order to control the rockfall risk at the site, the largest design-build rockfall protection project in the southern hemisphere was constructed using a high-capacity dynamic rockfall barrier installed along the length of the ridgeline. During the design phase of the project, it was evident that current methods to determine the coefficient of restitution (normal and tangential) are subjectively based on the designer's judgement. Currently, there is limited quantitative information available for the determination of dampening coefficients (restitution coefficients) for use in rockfall computer simulation programs. Accurate parameters are necessary for the design and dimensioning of rockfall protection structures. This project investigates an objective method to calculate these parameters for use in rockfall modelling based on field measurements of the slope. The first stage of the project is a review of current rockfall simulation programs and rockfall mechanics. This is followed by a review of the design of the rockfall protection measures installed at Stockton Mine. The site is revisited and detailed investigations are performed to further classify the slope conditions and observe current ridgeline mining methodology and effectiveness. Included in this are detailed geotechnical investigations of the slope (soil and rock) materials. The majority of the slopes below the ridgeline mining are heavily vegetated. This project investigates the interrelation of rockfall and vegetation. A series of laboratory tests are conducted using rock and soil samples from the ridgeline-mining project. Overburden samples were cut into spheres and cubes to investigate the influence of shape and rockfall trajectory. A rockfall simulation device was fabricated to drop samples of various shapes onto rock slabs and soil beds. The drop test trajectories were filmed using high-speed video recordings and used for rebound calculations. The purpose of these tests was to observe the effect of impact angle (slope angle) and shape on the coefficients of restitution. Also investigated was the influence of soil moisture and density on rockfall impacts. Observations from the field investigations and laboratory experiments were then used to calibrate the original rockfall design parameters at the site. This included comparing several common commercially available rockfall simulation programs for trajectory analysis. Recent rockfall events that have occurred during the ridgeline mining were compared to original estimates of volume and block-size to actual rockfall events (both natural and mining-induced).

Στην παρούσα εργασία γίνεται προσπάθεια εφαρμογής και βελτιστοποίησης υπολογιστικών μεθόδων ως προς την προσομοίωση καταπτώσεων βραχωδών τεμαχών από πρανή, για τον ασφαλή σχεδιασμό μέτρων πρόληψης και προστασίας. Με χρήση του λογισμικού Rocfall της Rocscience, έγιναν προσομοιώσεις σε καταπτώσεις βράχων που εντοπίστηκαν στους οικισμούς της Πλατιάνας του Δήμου Σκιλλούντος Ηλείας και Μύλοι του δήμου Ανδριτσαίνης Ηλείας. Επίσης συντάχτηκε αλγόριθμος υπολογισμού πολλαπλών συντεταγμένων, ώστε να προβληθούν τα αποτελέσματα σε χάρτες χωρικής κατανομής. / This dissertation is an attempt of application and optimization of numerical analysis methods of Rockfalls, for a safe design of remedial measures. With the use of program Rocfall of Rocscience, simulations were made at the settlements of Platiana, prefecture of Hlia, Miloi, prefecture of Hlia and Kimi, prefecture of Evia. Furthermore an algorithm (coordinates calculator) was made in order to be able after the simulation to plot the results as spatial distribution maps.

De nombreuses incertitudes liées aux mécanismes d'interaction entre les blocs rocheux et le versant naturel lors des chutes de blocs persistent ; la prévision de tels événements reste de ce fait encore incertaine. Néanmoins, les outils numériques et la puissance de calcul ne cessent d'évoluer. Si, auparavant, les calculs trajectographiques étaient restreints à des géométries simplifiées et à des mouvements balistiques en deux dimensions, il devient désormais possible d'y intégrer des raffinements tels que la forme complexe des blocs, des modèles numériques tridimensionnels de terrain d’une grande définition ou une prise en compte fine des mécanismes dissipatifs au niveau du point d'impact entre le bloc et le versant de propagation.L’objectif principal de la thèse est d’analyser, avec un code numérique discret en trois dimensions, l’influence des paramètres de forme et d’interaction sur la nature du rebond dans un contexte d’ingénierie. Nous présentons tout d’abord une méthodologie d'identification et d'étude de sensibilité des paramètres de contact, élaborée et validée à partir d’expérimentations de laboratoire. Cette méthodologie a été appliquée par la suite à deux expérimentations de chute de blocs menées sur sites réels à moyenne et à grande échelle.L’étude réalisée à moyenne échelle a permis de confronter le modèle numérique à des données obtenues lors d'une campagne expérimentale sur voies ferroviaires commanditée par la SNCF et menée en collaboration avec IRSTEA. Les analyses qui ont été réalisées ont porté sur les vitesses d’impact des blocs avec le ballast et les distances de propagation.L’étude menée à grande échelle s’appuie sur plusieurs séries de lâchés de blocs réalisées sur le site expérimental de la carrière d'Authume dans le cadre d’un Benchmark proposé dans le cadre du Projet National C2ROP. L’objectif principal du Benchmark est de tester et de comparer entre eux des logiciels trajectographiques, des codes de calculs numériques et les pratiques d’ingénierie pour en définir la pertinence et les domaines de validité. Dans le cadre de la thèse, ce travail a été conduit en plusieurs phases (à l’aveugle puis avec des données partielles mesurées lors de la campagne d'essais) et nous présentons l'évolution de ces analyses à l'issue de chacune des phases. L’étude a porté principalement sur les vitesses, les hauteurs et les énergies de passage des blocs en certains points du profil de propagation, ainsi que sur les positions d’arrêt des blocs. Une étude sur l'influence de la forme des blocs sur les distances de propagations est également présentée.Enfin, un Benchmark interne réalisé au sein de l'entreprise IMSRN montre l’importance, sur les analyses, de l'expertise de l'opérateur, et des conséquences de l'utilisation de différents outils trajectographiques (en 2D et en 3D). Ces travaux mettent en lumière les problématiques actuelles auxquelles sont souvent confrontés les bureaux d'études et les ingénieurs en charge des études de risques. / Numerous uncertainties related to the machanical interaction between rock boulders and the natural slope during block falls persist; and the forecast of such events is therefore still uncertain. Nevertheless, digital tools and computing power are constantly evolving. Previously, trajectory calculations were restricted to simplified geometries and two-dimensional ballistic movements, but it is now possible to incorporate refinements such as the complex shape of the blocks, three-dimensional numerical models of terrain of large sizes, as well as a better accounting of the dissipative mechanisms at the point of impact between the block and the run-out slope.The main objective of this work is to analyze, with a discrete elements code in three dimensions, the influence of the shape and interaction parameters on the nature of the rebound in an engineering context. We first present a methodology for identifying and studying the sensitivity of contact parameters, developed and validated from laboratory experiments. This methodology was subsequently applied to two block fall experiments conducted on medium and large real-scale scenarios.The study conducted on a medium scale allowed the numerical model to be compared with data obtained during an experimental rockfall tests campaign commissioned by the SNCF and conducted in collaboration with IRSTEA in a railway. The analyzes that were carried out mainly focused on the impact velocities of the blocks with ballast and propagation distances.The large-scale study is based on a series of block releases performed at the experimental site (Authume quarry, France) as part of a Benchmark proposed inside the National Project C2ROP. The mainly goal of this Benchmark is to access and compare trajectory softwares, numerical computation codes and engineering practices to define their relevance and validity domains. As part of the thesis, this work was conducted in several phases (blind phase and then conducted taking in account partial data measured during the experimental tests) and we present the evolution of these analyzes at the end of each one of these phases. The study focused on the velocities, heights and energies of the blocks at certain points of the propagation profile, as well as on the stopping positions of the blocks. The influence of block shapes on run-out distances is also presented.Lastly, an internal Benchmark performed within the IMSRN company shows the importance, on the analyzes, of the expertise of the operator, and the consequences derived from the application of different trajectography tools (in 2D and in 3D). This work highlights the current issues that are often faced by engineering offices and engineers in charge of risk quantification.

Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GRSM) received 12.5 million visitors in 2020. With a high traffic volume, it is imperative roadways remain open and free from obstruction. Annual unanticipated rockfall events in GRSM often obstruct traffic flow. Using the Unstable Slope Management Program for Federal Land Management Agencies (USMP for FLMA) protocols, this study analyzes high priority unstable rock slopes through 1) creation of an unstable slope geodatabase and 2) generation of a final rockfall risk model using Co-Kriging from a preliminary risk model and susceptibility model. A secondary goal of this study is to provide risk estimation for the three most traveled transportation corridors within GRSM, as well as investigate current rockfall hazard warning sign location to ultimately improve visitor safety with regards to rockfall hazards.

The Rockfall Management System developed for Tennessee DOT (TennRMS)integrates a customized rockfall risk rating system, web-based GIS application, and rockfall database to provide a robust single interface for interacting with rock slope information. The system should prove to be a valuable tool for the proactive management of rock slopes. The most important use of the system will be to identify and prioritizing rock slopes with the greatest potential for rockfall in order to provide decision makers with all the necessary information they need to plan remediation efforts. Over time, TennRMS can be used to track costs and effectiveness of different remediation methods used on problem rock slopes. Three papers have been developed for publication in peer reviewed journals. The papers describe the work done in support of developing Tennessee's Rockfall Management System (TennRMS) and its components. The system can be described by its conceptual framework and actual implemented components. Asset management incorporating risk & decision analysis and knowledge management makes up the conceptual framework. The system components include a field data collection system using PDA's, a rockfall database and a web-based GIS interface. The papers articulate the development and implementation of the various components and to provide a detailed review of rockfall management systems as implemented over the past 15 years. / Ph. D.

Rockfall from rock slopes adjacent to roadways is a major hazard and poses a problem for transportation agencies across the country. The state of Tennessee has implemented the Tennessee Rockfall Management System (RMS) as a means of reducing the liabilities associated with rockfall hazard. It utilizes digital data acquisition via PDAs coupled with distribution via an expandable web-based GIS database. The Tennessee Rockfall Hazard Rating System (RHRS) is part of the Tennessee RMS and assigns a numeric hazard rating according relative hazard for all slopes identified as having a high potential for delivering rock blocks onto Tennessee Department of Transportation maintained roadways. The Tennessee RHRS uses standard rock slope failure mechanisms (planar failure, wedge failure, topple failure, differential weathering, and raveling) along with the site and roadway geometry to assess the rockfall hazard of an individual slope. This study suggests methods that will expedite fieldwork, including an informational guide on how to properly identify individual failure mechanisms in the field. Also, the study examines the current method of scoring abundance and suggests an alternative, multiplicative approach. The alternative of using a multiplicative abundance is considered and its results summarized. / Master of Science

Assessing long-term rock stability is an important aspect in the analysis of slopes, dam and bridge foundations, and other infrastructure. Rock behavior over tens to thousands of years must be anticipated when predicting the performance of, for example, an underground containment facility for nuclear waste. At such long time scales, the time dependence of rock failure, typically ignored in short time scale analyses, has a significant effect and must be included in the analysis. Since time-dependent rock behavior is thought to be caused by the subcritical growth of microcracks, a time-dependent analysis should incorporate a method of simulating subcritical crack growth. In this thesis, a rock bridge damage model was developed using the finite element program Abaqus to simulate subcritical crack growth for all three modes of crack tip displacement in three-dimensional rock masses. Since subcritical crack growth is not among the damage initiation and evolution criteria available in Abaqus, its effect was included in the model through the USDFLD user subroutine. Material properties for the damage model were obtained through laboratory fracture toughness testing of Escabrosa limestone from Kartchner Caverns. Tests included the grooved disk test for mode I, the punch-through shear with confining pressure test for mode II, and the circumferentially-notched cylindrical specimen test for mode III. The subcritical crack growth parameters n and A were calculated for all three modes using the constant stress-rate method. Fracture test results were compared with a previous study by Tae Young Ko at the University of Arizona, which tested Coconino sandstone and determined that the subcritical crack growth parameters were consistent among modes. This thesis expands upon Ko's work by adding the characterization of a second rock material in all three modes; results indicate that for Escabrosa limestone the subcritical crack growth parameters are not consistent among modes. Additionally, the Escabrosa limestone composing the caverns ranges from a more homogeneous, even-grained texture to a more heterogeneous texture consisting of coarse-grained veins and solution cavities set in a fine-grained matrix. To determine if the veined regions are more susceptible to fracturing and act as the nuclei of rock bridge failure, the fracture toughness tests were conducted separately for each texture. Results indicate that the more heterogeneous limestone has a higher fracture strength, fracture toughness, and subcritical crack growth index n than the more homogeneous limestone. This is in agreement with previous studies that determined that a more complex and heterogeneous microstructure produces a larger microcrack process zone and a more tortuous crack path, leading to higher fracture energies and larger values of n. Application of the rock bridge damage model to a simplified Kartchner cave room with a single roof block provided visualization of decreasing rock bridge size and produced time-to-failure estimates of 1,251 to 65,850 years. Multiple models were run to study the effect of (i) using material properties from each of the two textures identified in the Escabrosa limestone and (ii) varying the in-situ stress ratio, K. Both the value of K and the choice of Escabrosa texture had a large effect on the estimated time-to-failure, indicating that for future modeling of Kartchner accurate estimation of the in-situ stress ratio is as important as field identification of homogeneous vs. heterogeneous textures.

Le travail présenté dans ce mémoire a porté sur l’auscultation d’un versant rocheux potentiellement instable, les Rochers de Valabres, soumis aux variations naturelles de température de surface. En effet, les variations thermiques sont supposées agir comme facteur préparatoire aux éboulements. Leur action est continu, lente et quasi-imperceptible mais le phénomène est peu exploré et rarement quantifié. Préalablement à l’auscultation, une phase de caractérisation du versant, basée sur des relevés topographiques par scannérisation laser, des mesures de contraintes et des essais en laboratoire, a été menée. Ces investigations ont permis d’appréhender les paramètres intrinsèques du versant et de mettre en évidence, dans la zone superficielle, un état de contraintes élevées, marqué par une forte rotation des axes principaux et influencé par la topographie et la présence d’hétérogénéités. L’auscultation des phénomènes thermomécaniques a été réalisée par un réseau de mesures de déformations et de températures en forage. Les mesures de température ont permis d'évaluer les apports de chaleur, en fonction du temps et de l’espace. Les mesures de déformations, bien qu’affectées par de nombreux artefacts instrumentaux, ont permis de quantifier le phénomène, à l’échelle quotidienne et annuelle, en terme de déformations, de contraintes équivalentes et de profondeurs d’influence. Afin d’explorer l’hypothèse de propagation de fissures sous contraintes d’origine thermique, une approche analytique, basée sur la mécanique de la rupture, a été mise en œuvre. Cette démarche a permis de révéler que les niveaux de contraintes / déformations mesurés sur le site étaient suffisants, sous certaines conditions et hypothèses, pour induire la propagation de fissures préexistantes. Par conséquent, les travaux menés dans cette thèse permettent de confirmer que les phénomènes thermomécaniques constituent un facteur préparatoire non négligeable aux éboulements et peuvent contribuer à la dégradation de la matrice rocheuse et/ou des ponts rocheux par propagation de fissures préexistantes / The present work focuses on the monitoring of a rockslope, prone to instability, named “Rochers de Valabres”, subjected to natural thermal fluctuation at the rock surface. Thermal variations are supposed to be a preparatory factor for rockfalls. Their action is continuous, slow and imperceptible. This phenomenum is not widly studied and seldom quantified. As a first step, investigations, based on topographic survey using Lidar, stress measurements and laboratory testing, have been performed. They reveals parameters of the rockslope, as well as the stress field at shallow depths, characterized by high magnitudes, high turnover of the principal orientations and affected by topography and geological heterogeneities. Thermomechanical monitoring was performed by a network composed of strain cells and thermal sensors, deployed in boreholes. Thermal data give us information about thermal transfer, as a function of time or space. Strain variation data, although affected by thermal artefacts, give quantitative information on strains, equivalent stresses and depth of influence, on daily and seasonal basis. In order to evaluate the assumption of fracture propagation on thermal loading, an analytical model, based on fracture mechanic, is suggested. Using specific conditions and assumptions, this model reveals that measured stress and strains are sufficient to lead to propagation of pre-existing discontinuities. Consequently, this study confirms that thermomechanical variations can be considered as a non negligible preparatory factor for rockfall and can contribute to mechanical degradation of the rock masse and discontinuities

L'objectif principal de ce travail de thèse est d'améliorer la prise en compte des peuplements de taillis dans les logiciels d'analyse trajectographique.Dans un premier temps, un modèle numérique permettant de créer des peuplements virtuels de taillis à l'échelle du versant a été développé et validé sur la base d'inventaires forestiers réalisés dans des taillis.Deux modèles numériques permettant de simuler des impacts de blocs sur des franc pieds et des cépées ont été également développés en utilisant la Méthode des Éléments Discrets (MED).Ces modèles ont été calibrés par des essais d'impact sur des tiges de hêtre.Ils permettent d'intégrer l'influence du houppier et du système racinaire, de modéliser explicitement le contact entre le bloc et les tiges impactées, et d'intégrer les non-linéarités matérielles (rupture des tiges, délaminage) se développant dans le tronc au cours de l'impact.Ces travaux ont conduit à la construction d'un modèle trajectographique MED permettant de simuler la propagation d'un bloc dans une forêt de taillis à l'échelle du versant. Finalement, le rôle protecteur de différents peuplements de taillis contre l'aléa de chute de bloc a été caractérisé à l'aide de ce modèle. / This research work is dedicated to improve the integration of coppice stands in rockfall analyses.First, a model was built to create virtual coppice stands. This model was validated using field inventories in coppice stands.Two numerical models were developed to simulate impacts of blocks on single trees and coppice stools using the Discrete Elements Method (MED).These models were calibrated using laboratory impact tests on beech stems.They account for the influence of the root system and of the crown on the tree dynamic response, the explicit modeling of the contact between the block and the impacted stem and the non-linearity evolution into the trunk during impact.Finally, a DEM rockfall software was developed to model rockfall propagation in coppice stands.The protective role against rockfall hazard of different coppice stands was characterized with this model.

Les écrans de filets pare-blocs sont des structures complexes hétérogènes formés d'un filet métallique maintenu par des câbles, des poteaux et des haubans munis de dissipateurs d'énergie. Le filet intercepte la trajectoire du bloc rocheux et résiste à sa perforation en dissipant l'énergie cinétique de l'impact dans les différents éléments de la structure. Le problème de modélisation posé par ces structures met en jeu de nombreuses non-linéarités tant matérielles que géométriques : l'impact dynamique rapide, les grandes déformations du filet et des câbles, les glissements et les frottements (dans le filet, du filet sur les câbles ou des câbles sur les supports), la plastification du filet ou des éléments dissipateurs, ainsi qu'un très grand nombre de paramètres géométriques ou technologiques (type de filet, type de dissipateur, type d'architecture de kit).Les travaux de doctorat présentés ici proposent deux nouvelles approches pour la modélisation numérique de deux principaux éléments du comportement des écrans de filets pare-blocs : les propriétés élastiques intrinsèques des filets et l'effet rideau, c'est-à-dire le glissement du filet sur les câbles de rives. Sur le premier point, il est à noter que les recherches qui ont été consacrées jusqu'à présent à l'étude du filet se concentrent pour l'essentiel sur des typologies particulières. Dans ce travail, les propriétés intrinsèques des différentes technologies de filets sont déterminées à l'aide de la méthode d'homogénéisation des milieux périodiques discrets dans laquelle chaque filet est remplacé par une membrane homogène. Une comparaison des comportements non-linéaires des principales technologies de filets est effectuée et met en évidence des différences remarquables dans la distribution des efforts aux bords de chaque filet et les caractéristiques des déformations. Concernant le deuxième point, plusieurs études ont montré l'importance de la modélisation des câbles glissants pour reproduire le comportement réel de la structure. Dans la deuxième partie de la thèse, l'effet rideau est modélisé. Un modèle analytique de câble glissant à « n » nœuds est développé. Ensuite, ce modèle est implémenté dans un algorithme numérique mettant en œuvre une utilisation avancée du logiciel de calcul par éléments finis code-aster en statique et en dynamique. Cet algorithme est validé par des calculs analytiques et les limites de la méthode utilisée sont exposées. Enfin, des tests numériques sont conduits sur des modèles de filets en tenant compte de l'effet rideau pour évaluer l'influence du modèle développé sur les résultats. Des remarques, observations et conseils sont déduits afin d'aboutir à un outil numérique d'aide à la conception des écrans de filets pare-blocs / Soft rockfall barriers are complex structures that generally consist of a metallic net supported by steel posts and cables with brake elements. Several experimental and numerical studies have been carried out to evaluate their behaviour and a technical agreement in EU was recently established to certify these barriers based on experimental tests. Actually, manufacturers develop rockfall kits with their own technical specificities. The objective of the present work is to determine the intrinsic properties of most common nets technologies and to investigate their influence on the overall mechanical behaviour of the structure. To this end, a comprehensive comparison between the local behaviours of the different nets is first presented using equivalent homogeneous membranes. Results derived for square nets under static concentrated loading illustrate the influence of the manufacturing technology on the deflection and stresses distribution. Then, a numerical and analytical model for the so-called “curtain effect” is developed and validated. It is focused on the capacity of the proposed methodology to study and evaluate the response of the whole barrier