The separation of agricultural practice from urban communities has long been understood as a key defining feature of urban societies. This thesis investigates the relationship between developments in agriculture and urbanisation in Late Iron Age and Roman Britain. The Late Iron Age period saw the rise of oppida, characterised by extensive dyke systems, the presence of elites and imported material culture. Three models of the agricultural basis of oppida are currently available: agricultural innovations, surplus production, and non-arable settlements. These three models have been evaluated through three methods: the analysis of charred, waterlogged and mineralised plant remains from Silchester, an oppidum and civitas capital in southern Britain; the quantitative analysis of secondary archaeobotanical data from the regional area of the Hampshire Downs and the Thames Valley; and the synthesis of archaeobotanical evidence for food and agriculture at oppida and Roman towns in Britain. Key findings are that spelt wheat and barley were cultivated at Late Iron Age Silchester in combination with a new crop (flax), new management techniques (hay meadows) and the consumption of new plant foods (olives, celery and coriander). Following the establishment of the Roman civitas capital, the agricultural basis continued unchanged for several decades before a re-organisation c. AD70/80, whereby crop-processing ceased within Silchester. The regional crop-processing and weed ecology analysis shows that arable farming was conducted at Silchester, and that large-scale handling of cereals was not occurring unlike at earlier hillforts, and later towns. The evidence for animal stabling, flax cultivation, haymaking, and new plant foods from Silchester are interpreted as representing the coalescence of a rural population, developing new farming techniques to cope with the nucleated population, and therefore supportive of internal models of oppida development.

Despite the vast amount of work and the huge database for Roman Britain, the people of the province remain very difficult to discern. There are many reasons for this, but one is that we have not yet learned to look behind the disjecta membra of archaeology in order to understand the structure and nature of society, and how the Roman Conquest may have impacted upon it. The language of sociology offers scope for thought, especially when combined with examples drawn from historically documented societies in later periods. Whilst models drawn from the classical world are important, attention also needs to be focused on the local, and on the factors that determined the shape of people's lives and influenced their daily activities. Not all these are archaeologically detectable; nevertheless an appreciation of their existence is an important pre-requisite in attempting explanations of patterns in the data.

The purpose of this thesis is to determine whether the Roman administrative towns of Britain continued in their original Romanized form as seen in the second century AD, or were altered in their appearance and function in the fourth and fifth century, with a visible reduction in their urbanization and Romanization. It will be argued that British town life did change significantly. Major components of urbanization were disrupted with the public buildings disused or altered for other purposes, and the reduction or cessation of public services. A reduction in the population of the towns can be perceived in the eventual disuse of the extramural cemeteries and abandonment of substantial areas of settlement or possibly entire towns. The cause of this will be shown to be related to the towns' relationship with the imperial taxation and revenue system, and the accelerating pattern of British involvement in revolts and usurpations. / Graduate

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The thesis has considered what foods were available to the populations of the Late Iron Age and Roman Britain and the levels of nutrition possible. Evidence for (or the absence of) nutritional deficiency diseases was used to reach conclusions about the standard of health, and knowledge of modern nutritional food models enabled the author to assess the state of health of ancient individuals from a study of the foods to which they had access. To provide a benchmark for what can be ascertained about the Roman’s choices in food production, selection, cooking, consumption and storage, an examination was made of the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, where archaeological investigations have revealed aspects of daily life, trade, living and cooking arrangements, food utensils and human remains. A study of the literary sources determined the attitude of the Romans towards food; it was clear that Romans in the ancient world knew how to source their food, and were aware that, if not properly handled, some food could be detrimental to their health. Sites in Britain from the pre-Roman Iron Age were then considered in regards to food production, selection, cooking and storage, in order to be able to assess the situation after the Roman invasion. For the Roman period, different types of sites were considered: small and larger civilian centres and cemeteries, and military bases. To discover if there were regional differences in diet or nutrition, sites were selected from the North, Midlands, East Anglia, the South and South East and the South West. Also discussed was the role that external influences, features and facilities and occupation of each site had on developing the level of health of their inhabitants. It was found that the native and introduced populations throughout Britain during the Romano-British era did have access to a nutritionally sound food supply, and thus it was possible for them to maintain a healthy diet. Despite the introduction of new foods with the advent of the Romans, there was no discernable difference in the state of health and nutrition from the Iron Age to the Roman, with the exception of dental health, where there was a distinct deterioration as the result of sugar-rich foods being added to the diet. Those cases where the nutritional levels of the people fell below what might be considered conducive to good health were probably due to other factors: it was the physical features or facilities of a settlement (or lack of them) and the occupations and economic status of individuals that actually dictated standards of health.

The thesis has considered what foods were available to the populations of the Late Iron Age and Roman Britain and the levels of nutrition possible. Evidence for (or the absence of) nutritional deficiency diseases was used to reach conclusions about the standard of health, and knowledge of modern nutritional food models enabled the author to assess the state of health of ancient individuals from a study of the foods to which they had access. To provide a benchmark for what can be ascertained about the Roman’s choices in food production, selection, cooking, consumption and storage, an examination was made of the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, where archaeological investigations have revealed aspects of daily life, trade, living and cooking arrangements, food utensils and human remains. A study of the literary sources determined the attitude of the Romans towards food; it was clear that Romans in the ancient world knew how to source their food, and were aware that, if not properly handled, some food could be detrimental to their health. Sites in Britain from the pre-Roman Iron Age were then considered in regards to food production, selection, cooking and storage, in order to be able to assess the situation after the Roman invasion. For the Roman period, different types of sites were considered: small and larger civilian centres and cemeteries, and military bases. To discover if there were regional differences in diet or nutrition, sites were selected from the North, Midlands, East Anglia, the South and South East and the South West. Also discussed was the role that external influences, features and facilities and occupation of each site had on developing the level of health of their inhabitants. It was found that the native and introduced populations throughout Britain during the Romano-British era did have access to a nutritionally sound food supply, and thus it was possible for them to maintain a healthy diet. Despite the introduction of new foods with the advent of the Romans, there was no discernable difference in the state of health and nutrition from the Iron Age to the Roman, with the exception of dental health, where there was a distinct deterioration as the result of sugar-rich foods being added to the diet. Those cases where the nutritional levels of the people fell below what might be considered conducive to good health were probably due to other factors: it was the physical features or facilities of a settlement (or lack of them) and the occupations and economic status of individuals that actually dictated standards of health.

The thesis has considered what foods were available to the populations of the Late Iron Age and Roman Britain and the levels of nutrition possible. Evidence for (or the absence of) nutritional deficiency diseases was used to reach conclusions about the standard of health, and knowledge of modern nutritional food models enabled the author to assess the state of health of ancient individuals from a study of the foods to which they had access. To provide a benchmark for what can be ascertained about the Roman’s choices in food production, selection, cooking, consumption and storage, an examination was made of the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, where archaeological investigations have revealed aspects of daily life, trade, living and cooking arrangements, food utensils and human remains. A study of the literary sources determined the attitude of the Romans towards food; it was clear that Romans in the ancient world knew how to source their food, and were aware that, if not properly handled, some food could be detrimental to their health. Sites in Britain from the pre-Roman Iron Age were then considered in regards to food production, selection, cooking and storage, in order to be able to assess the situation after the Roman invasion. For the Roman period, different types of sites were considered: small and larger civilian centres and cemeteries, and military bases. To discover if there were regional differences in diet or nutrition, sites were selected from the North, Midlands, East Anglia, the South and South East and the South West. Also discussed was the role that external influences, features and facilities and occupation of each site had on developing the level of health of their inhabitants. It was found that the native and introduced populations throughout Britain during the Romano-British era did have access to a nutritionally sound food supply, and thus it was possible for them to maintain a healthy diet. Despite the introduction of new foods with the advent of the Romans, there was no discernable difference in the state of health and nutrition from the Iron Age to the Roman, with the exception of dental health, where there was a distinct deterioration as the result of sugar-rich foods being added to the diet. Those cases where the nutritional levels of the people fell below what might be considered conducive to good health were probably due to other factors: it was the physical features or facilities of a settlement (or lack of them) and the occupations and economic status of individuals that actually dictated standards of health.

The thesis has considered what foods were available to the populations of the Late Iron Age and Roman Britain and the levels of nutrition possible. Evidence for (or the absence of) nutritional deficiency diseases was used to reach conclusions about the standard of health, and knowledge of modern nutritional food models enabled the author to assess the state of health of ancient individuals from a study of the foods to which they had access. To provide a benchmark for what can be ascertained about the Roman’s choices in food production, selection, cooking, consumption and storage, an examination was made of the sites of Pompeii and Herculaneum, where archaeological investigations have revealed aspects of daily life, trade, living and cooking arrangements, food utensils and human remains. A study of the literary sources determined the attitude of the Romans towards food; it was clear that Romans in the ancient world knew how to source their food, and were aware that, if not properly handled, some food could be detrimental to their health. Sites in Britain from the pre-Roman Iron Age were then considered in regards to food production, selection, cooking and storage, in order to be able to assess the situation after the Roman invasion. For the Roman period, different types of sites were considered: small and larger civilian centres and cemeteries, and military bases. To discover if there were regional differences in diet or nutrition, sites were selected from the North, Midlands, East Anglia, the South and South East and the South West. Also discussed was the role that external influences, features and facilities and occupation of each site had on developing the level of health of their inhabitants. It was found that the native and introduced populations throughout Britain during the Romano-British era did have access to a nutritionally sound food supply, and thus it was possible for them to maintain a healthy diet. Despite the introduction of new foods with the advent of the Romans, there was no discernable difference in the state of health and nutrition from the Iron Age to the Roman, with the exception of dental health, where there was a distinct deterioration as the result of sugar-rich foods being added to the diet. Those cases where the nutritional levels of the people fell below what might be considered conducive to good health were probably due to other factors: it was the physical features or facilities of a settlement (or lack of them) and the occupations and economic status of individuals that actually dictated standards of health.

This research focuses on artefactual assemblages from temples in the south-east and east of England from 50 BCE to 250 CE. In order to evaluate these data, which primarily consists of faunal remains, coins, and items of personal adornment, quantitative methods to perform intra-site and inter-site analyses are utilised. As a result of the analyses conducted, a range of social practices were identified, including those specific to individual temples, and those that were shared to varying degrees across the breadth of the study area. The study also examines how a site’s unique environmental and political conditions characterised the assemblages of each temple. Moreover, it reveals that the pre-Roman Eastern and Southern kingdoms continued to influence the nature of practices on temple sites into the Roman period, and that the impact of Roman conquest was much less persuasive as might be expected from previous research on religion in Roman Britain. The conclusions of this study emphasise the significant future potential of the finds evidence to illuminate studies of religion in the Roman empire, as well as highlighting the diverse nature of religion in early Roman Britain.

The subject matter for this research is the representation of femininities and masculinities in Roman art with particular reference to that of Roman Britain. The study focuses on the visual presentation of gender for specific deities, personifications and figural images in funerary art; this includes concepts of sexuality that in some cases become entwined with the study of gender. I have endeavoured to demonstrate how socially constructed values add to the understandings of gender and Roman art. The first chapter concentrates on Roman concepts relating to masculinities and femininities, detailing how these are portrayed in visual culture. This entails the identification of gender markers in various forms including clothing (for example the toga and stola), jewellery (such as the bulla) and distinct objects (for instance, military paraphernalia, weaving combs and spinning equipment). Following this broad introduction to gender in Roman art, the study then centres on specific deities, commencing with Venus and Mars, then Diana and Apollo, and Minerva and Hercules - each one has a particular gender ascription. I examine these in terms of visual representation and how their specific femininities and masculinities were presented. Personifications and figural funerary art, respectively, are the following and final chapters of the research. The former deals with the use of personifications in Roman art and the latter with patronage and presentation of figural tombstones and inscriptions. Both chapters observe these issues with preference towards the demonstration of gender allocation and any undertones implicated.