Fire is generally used as a management tool for different vegetation types such as savannas and grasslands in southern Africa. In the False Thornveld of the Eastern Cape, fire is commonly used to control bush encroachment and to increase grass production, as grasses are important source of forage for domestic livestock. At the University of Fort Hare farm in the Eastern Cape, a trial was set up in 1980 to investigate the effect of burning frequency on vegetation. There are six treatments replicated twice in a completely randomized design on a 100 m x 50 m plots. The treatments comprise no burn, annual, biennial, triennial, quadrennial and sexennial burns. From this trial a study was conducted to investigate long term effect of burning frequency on species and soil seed bank diversity. Two 100 m line transects located 25 m apart were laid within each plot, and the herbaceous and woody species were identified and recorded along the line transects. Relative abundances (%) for each species were calculated for each treatment. Soil samples were collected at an interval of 13.3 m along the line transects. The samples were placed in paper bags and kept for use in a germination experiment. The seedling emergence germination method was used in the glasshouse to determine emerging seedlings, pots were filled with Hygromix growth medium and the soils from the fire trials 12 X 6 = 72 were spread on top. Soil from the control plots were also pre-treated with heat, smoke and the combination of heat and smoke. The experiment started in January 2010 and was terminated in April 2010. The Shannon-Weaver Diversity Index was used to determine species diversity for standing vegetation and germinated seedlings. Data were tested for normality and species abundances were transformed. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was applied to test treatment effects on geminated seedlings, species abundance and diversity at α = 0.05 significance level. Significant differences between treatment means were determined by post v hoc tests using Fischer‟s Least Significant Difference test at α = 0.05. The Pearson Moment Correlation test was used to test the relationship between vegetation and soil seed banks. Treatments had significant effects on herbaceous, woody species abundance and diversity (P < 0.05), but there was no significant treatment effect on soil seed bank diversity and on pre-germination treatments (P > 0.05). The annual, biennial and triennial burns were dominated by Themeda triandra while the quadrennial, sexennial and the control treatments were dominated by Sporobolus fimbriatus and Melica decumbens. A. karroo dominated the woody component across all treatments, but it did not change in abundance. S. fimbriatus was the most abundant in the soil seed bank across all the treatments and also in all pre-germination treatments. Species diversity was high in standing vegetation in the quadrennial, sexennial and the control treatments. There was no significant correlation between the standing vegetation and soil seed bank diversities (P > 0.05). Based on these findings it is apparent that fire can change vegetation in an area to be dominated by fire tolerant or fire intolerant species. Fire frequency, heat and smoke affects soil seed banks to a lesser extent in the False Thornveld. For the management of the False Thornveld of the Eastern Cape, less frequent burning is recommended as it increases aboveground species diversity.

CNPq; CAPES / Este trabalho consistiu em avaliar a composição química e a cinética de degradação ruminal da Aveia branca (Avena sativa L.) cv. URS Guapa submetida a diferentes níveis de adubação nitrogenada: 0, 60, 120 e 240 kg ha-1 de nitrogênio, em dois anos consecutivos, 2013 e 2014. Os dados obtidos das análises bromatológicas e os valores estimados para os parâmetros do modelo de cinética de degradação foram transformados pelo método de Box-Cox. O modelo estatístico foi ajustado por meio do PROC MIXED do SAS (versão 9.4) usando a máxima verossimilhança restrita (REML) e as variáveis com efeito significativo comparadas através do teste de Tukey-Kramer. Não houve efeito da adubação nitrogenada em nenhum dos anos de cultivo. Os valores observados para as variáveis bromatológicas da cultivar no ano de 2013 foram superiores (p<0,001) para Proteína Bruta (PB), Matéria Mineral (MM), Proteína Insolúvel em Detergente Ácido (PIDA), Carboidratos Solúveis (CHOs) e Carboidratos Não Fibrosos (CNF) em comparação com o ano de 2014. A composição da cultivar em 2014 tendeu a maiores teores de Fibra Insolúvel em Detergente Neutro (FDN), Lignina e Carboidratos Totais (CT). Não houve efeito significativo para os teores de Matéria Seca (MS) e Extrato Etéreo (EE) entre os anos de cultivo. Para os parâmetros da cinética de produção de gás in vitro, a cultivar no ano de 2013 apresentou os valores observados para o volume máximo de gás produzido pela degradação da fração solúvel de rápida digestão (Vf1) e para a taxa específica de produção de gás pela degradação da fração insolúvel potencialmente degradável de digestão lenta (k2) maiores (p<0,001) que 2014. Em 2014 foram observados valores superiores para o volume máximo de gás produzido pela degradação da fração insolúvel potencialmente degradável de digestão lenta (Vf2) e para a latência (L). O parâmetro k1, referente a taxa específica de produção de gás pela degradação da fração solúvel de rápida digestão não foi significativo em nenhum dos períodos experimentais avaliados. A cultivar, especialmente no ano de 2013, apresentou uma elevada qualidade nutricional evidenciada pelos teores de CNF e PB e pelos menores valores de FDN, o que torna o cultivo uma excelente opção para compor pastagens hibernais. / This work consisted in evaluating the chemical composition and kinetics of ruminal degradation of white oats (Avena sativa L.) cv. URS Guapa submitted to different levels of nitrogen fertilization: 0, 60, 120 and 240 kg ha-1 of nitrogen, in two consecutive years, 2013 and 2014. The data obtained from the bromatological analyzes and the estimated values for the parameters of the kinetic model of degradation were transformed by the Box-Cox method. The statistical model was adjusted using the PROC MIXED of the SAS (version 9.4) using the maximum restricted likelihood (REML) and the variables with significant effect compared through the Tukey-Kramer test. There was no effect of nitrogen fertilization in any of the growing years. The values observed for the bromatological variables of the cultivar in the year 2013 were higher (P <0.001) for Crude Protein (PB), Mineral Matter (MM), Insoluble Protein Acid Detergent (PIDA), Soluble Carbohydrates (CHOs) Fibrous (CNF) compared to the year 2014. The composition of the cultivar in 2014 tended to higher levels of Insoluble Fiber in Neutral Detergent (NDF), Lignin and Total Carbohydrate (CT). There was no significant effect on the contents of dry matter (DM) and ethereal extract (EE) between the years of cultivation. For the parameters of the in vitro gas production kinetics, the cultivar in the year 2013 presented the values observed for the maximum volume of gas produced by the degradation of the soluble fraction of fast digestion (Vf1) and for the specific rate of gas production by Degradability of the slow degradable fraction of slow digestion (k2) greater than that of 2014. In 2014 higher values were observed for the maximum volume of gas produced by the degradation of the insoluble fraction potentially degradable of slow digestion (Vf2) and for the Latency (L). The parameter k1, referring to the specific rate of gas production by the degradation of the soluble fraction of fast digestion was not significant in any of the evaluated experimental periods. The cultivar, especially in the year 2013, presented a high nutritional quality evidenced by the CNF and CP levels and the lower values of NDF, which makes the crop an excellent option to compose winter pastures.

CNPq; CAPES / Este trabalho consistiu em avaliar a composição química e a cinética de degradação ruminal da Aveia branca (Avena sativa L.) cv. URS Guapa submetida a diferentes níveis de adubação nitrogenada: 0, 60, 120 e 240 kg ha-1 de nitrogênio, em dois anos consecutivos, 2013 e 2014. Os dados obtidos das análises bromatológicas e os valores estimados para os parâmetros do modelo de cinética de degradação foram transformados pelo método de Box-Cox. O modelo estatístico foi ajustado por meio do PROC MIXED do SAS (versão 9.4) usando a máxima verossimilhança restrita (REML) e as variáveis com efeito significativo comparadas através do teste de Tukey-Kramer. Não houve efeito da adubação nitrogenada em nenhum dos anos de cultivo. Os valores observados para as variáveis bromatológicas da cultivar no ano de 2013 foram superiores (p<0,001) para Proteína Bruta (PB), Matéria Mineral (MM), Proteína Insolúvel em Detergente Ácido (PIDA), Carboidratos Solúveis (CHOs) e Carboidratos Não Fibrosos (CNF) em comparação com o ano de 2014. A composição da cultivar em 2014 tendeu a maiores teores de Fibra Insolúvel em Detergente Neutro (FDN), Lignina e Carboidratos Totais (CT). Não houve efeito significativo para os teores de Matéria Seca (MS) e Extrato Etéreo (EE) entre os anos de cultivo. Para os parâmetros da cinética de produção de gás in vitro, a cultivar no ano de 2013 apresentou os valores observados para o volume máximo de gás produzido pela degradação da fração solúvel de rápida digestão (Vf1) e para a taxa específica de produção de gás pela degradação da fração insolúvel potencialmente degradável de digestão lenta (k2) maiores (p<0,001) que 2014. Em 2014 foram observados valores superiores para o volume máximo de gás produzido pela degradação da fração insolúvel potencialmente degradável de digestão lenta (Vf2) e para a latência (L). O parâmetro k1, referente a taxa específica de produção de gás pela degradação da fração solúvel de rápida digestão não foi significativo em nenhum dos períodos experimentais avaliados. A cultivar, especialmente no ano de 2013, apresentou uma elevada qualidade nutricional evidenciada pelos teores de CNF e PB e pelos menores valores de FDN, o que torna o cultivo uma excelente opção para compor pastagens hibernais. / This work consisted in evaluating the chemical composition and kinetics of ruminal degradation of white oats (Avena sativa L.) cv. URS Guapa submitted to different levels of nitrogen fertilization: 0, 60, 120 and 240 kg ha-1 of nitrogen, in two consecutive years, 2013 and 2014. The data obtained from the bromatological analyzes and the estimated values for the parameters of the kinetic model of degradation were transformed by the Box-Cox method. The statistical model was adjusted using the PROC MIXED of the SAS (version 9.4) using the maximum restricted likelihood (REML) and the variables with significant effect compared through the Tukey-Kramer test. There was no effect of nitrogen fertilization in any of the growing years. The values observed for the bromatological variables of the cultivar in the year 2013 were higher (P <0.001) for Crude Protein (PB), Mineral Matter (MM), Insoluble Protein Acid Detergent (PIDA), Soluble Carbohydrates (CHOs) Fibrous (CNF) compared to the year 2014. The composition of the cultivar in 2014 tended to higher levels of Insoluble Fiber in Neutral Detergent (NDF), Lignin and Total Carbohydrate (CT). There was no significant effect on the contents of dry matter (DM) and ethereal extract (EE) between the years of cultivation. For the parameters of the in vitro gas production kinetics, the cultivar in the year 2013 presented the values observed for the maximum volume of gas produced by the degradation of the soluble fraction of fast digestion (Vf1) and for the specific rate of gas production by Degradability of the slow degradable fraction of slow digestion (k2) greater than that of 2014. In 2014 higher values were observed for the maximum volume of gas produced by the degradation of the insoluble fraction potentially degradable of slow digestion (Vf2) and for the Latency (L). The parameter k1, referring to the specific rate of gas production by the degradation of the soluble fraction of fast digestion was not significant in any of the evaluated experimental periods. The cultivar, especially in the year 2013, presented a high nutritional quality evidenced by the CNF and CP levels and the lower values of NDF, which makes the crop an excellent option to compose winter pastures.

MSCAGR (Animal Science) / Department of Animal Science

[Truncated abstract] Antimicrobial growth promoters are added to feed to prevent lactic acidosis in ruminant animals by selectively inhibiting rumen bacteria that produce lactic acid. However, recently imposed or impending bans on the use of antimicrobial growth promoters in animal production have lead to a critical need to find practical alternatives that are safe for the animal and consumer and that obtain similar production benefits. I investigated bioactive plants of Australia for their potential to prevent lactic acidosis in ruminants. The unifying hypothesis tested was that plants would be identified that selectively inhibit lactic acid-producing bacteria and consequently protect against lactic acidosis. This hypothesis was tested in a three phase process: phase 1, plant selection and collection; phase 2, a three stage protocol for screening plants and essential oils; phase 3, in vivo experiments and chemical fractionation of the most promising plant. I developed an in vitro bioassay that simulated acidosis by adding glucose to rumen fluid in Bellco tubes and incubating for 5 h (Chapter 4). The pH and gas production were used as indicators of acidosis and fermentation activity. I used this bioassay to screen ninety-five plants (dried and ground material from 79 species) and ten essential oils and included a negative control (oaten chaff) and a positive control (virginiamycin). One plant, Eremophila glabra, produced a similar pH (5.63) to the positive control (5.43) although it inhibited gas production to a moderate extent (P < 0.05). ... Seven serrulatane diterpenes were identified to be the major secondary metabolites in E. glabra. The metabolites were screened using a broth dilution and microtitre spectrophotometry method and were selective against S. bovis at between 320 and 1077 [mu]g/ mL. The serrulatanes from E. glabra were probably responsible for the activity against acidosis that I observed in vitro, because they selectively inhibited lactateproducing bacteria. It is also possible that a synergy between serrulatanes and possibly other metabolites are responsible for the activity observed in vitro. The results from my experiments support the role that bioactive plants may have to replace the antibiotics that are added to livestock feed. Australian plants were identified containing compounds that were active against the bacterial processes responsible for ruminant acidosis. To my knowledge this is the first work undertaken to identify bioactive plants of Australia for their potential to prevent acidosis. I developed in vitro screening bioassays that targeted key indicators of acidosis. These bioassays enabled me to identify 5 plants from the 104 screened that could potentially control acidosis. One of these plants in particular, E. glabra, showed a level of activity in vitro that was comparable to antibiotic protection against acidosis. The exciting in vitro results were not demonstrated in vivo but only one dose level of E. glabra was used, which was based on the in vitro work. In contrast to the in vitro system the rumen is a continuous flow system with greater complexity and it is possible that the concentration of E. glabra that I used in vivo was not optimum. This places importance on future dose response experiments to confirm the efficacy of E. glabra in vivo.

Woody plant encroachment is one of the major problems worldwide because it affects negatively the herbaceous layer, which provide forage for livestock production. However, the role of ruminants particularly browsers in the dispersal of woody plant seeds still remains a concern for farmers interested in grass production. Seedpods of various woody plant species constitute a crucial part of the diet of herbivores during the dry season because of their high nutritional quality compared to herbaceous material. The interaction of associated diet quality, seed characteristics and animal species among other factors play a pivotal part in the success of livestock faecal seeds dispersion. Furthermore, dispersed seeds that successfully grow into mature woody plants become an important source of protein for herbivores. The use of woody plants as a source forage is known to be limited by plant secondary metabolites (PSMs) such as condensed tannins. The objectives of this study were to determine 1) the effects of condensed tannins and crude protein of Vachellia tortilis and Dichrostachys cinerea pods in seed recovery and germination fed to goats, and 2) the effects of diet mixing on the feed intake of plant species by goats. In the first experiment, a total of 12 female indigenous goats and 12 female Pedi sheep were utilised in this study, with the average body weights of 29.50 kg ± 1.60 (S.E) and 28.70 kg ± 1.60, respectively. Twelve goats were grouped into two groups of six goats per group, one group was fed D. cinerea pods and the other group was fed V. tortilis pods. The group of 12 sheep were divided similarly, the one group was fed D. cinerea pods and the other group was fed V. tortilis pods. Each animal was given V. tortilis and D. cinerea pods at 2.50% of their body weight. All animals were allowed to consume D. cinerea or V. tortilis pods within 24 h, after which the remaining pods were collected and weighed. Faecal collection commenced immediately after the 24 h pods feeding and was carried on until no seeds were discovered in faeces. All faeces extracted from sheep and goats were collected daily in the morning from the faecal bags. In the second experiment, a total of 24 indigenous goats with average body weight of 26.6 kg ± 0.51 were utilised. Goats were arbitrarily selected and grouped into four groups of six goats per group (goats were placed individually in 2 m2 pens). Each group was fed one of the following diets: diet one - Searsia lancea, diet two - S. pyroides, diet three - Euclea crispa and diet four - was a combination of the three plant species (Searsia lancea, S. pyroides and Euclea crispa). Searsia lancea, S. pyroides and E. crispa branches were collected every morning prior to feeding, and were weighed before offering the animals. Refusals were gathered and weighed, and intake was calculated as distinction between weight in and refusals. Plant species foliage were analysed for crude protein, condensed tannin, acid detergent lignin, acid detergent fibre and neutral detergent fibre. During the first experiment, the cumulative percentage seed recovery of V. tortilis from goats (46.00 % ± 1.90) and sheep (52.00 % ± 2.93) was significantly higher than D. cinerea from goats (13 % ± 1.47) and sheep (24.00 % ± 1.16). Germination percentage of D. cinerea seeds that passed through the gastro-intestinal tract of goats (33.12 % ± 2.94) and sheep (36.00 % ± 2.68) was significantly higher than V. tortilis seeds that passed through the gastro-intestinal tract of goats (28.98 % ± 2.68) and sheep (23.04 % ± 2.81). Average D. cinerea (34.56 % ± 1.99) and V. tortilis (26.02 %± 2.10) seeds that went through the gastro-intestinal of goats and sheep had a significantly higher germination rate than the control (i.e. no passage through the gut; D. cinerea = 2.31 % ± 1.55, V. tortilis = 5.07 % ± 2.68). The high mean cumulative percentage seed recovery of V. tortilis (18.80 %) may be attributed to the relatively higher crude protein than D. cinerea (12.20 %). This may encourage animal seed dispersal and germination of woody plant species with relatively high crude protein content. In the second experiment, Searsia lancea contained 8.50 % CP, 21.46 % acid detergent fibre (ADF), 12.50 % ADL and 39.37 % NDF. Searsia pyroides had 9.03 % CP, 27.07 % ADF, 10.89 % ADL and 40.30 % NDF. Euclea crispa had 6.19 % CP, 26.20 % ADF, 16.63 % ADL and 30.02 % NDF. Mixed diet (combination of the three plant species) had 8.96 % CP, 23.72 % ADF, 11.13 % ADL and 38.28 % NDF. Searsia lancea had 2.70 % of CTs while S. pyroides had 5.20 % CT, E. crispa had 6.44 % CT and mixed diet had 7.20 % CT. The mean dry matter intake varied significantly among dietary groups (P < 0.001). Similarly, goats offered a mixed diet consumed more CTs (P < 0.01) than those offered individual forage species. The high mean cumulative percentage seed recovery of V. tortilis may be attributed to the higher crude protein of V. tortilis (18.80 %) than D. cinerea (12.20 %). Higher passage rate may encourage animal seed dispersal and germination of plant species. The results from experiment two support the postulation that animals foraging in mixed diet systems consume more PSMs and achieve higher dry matter intake than animals confined to monocultures or single species feeding systems. Given that woody plant encroachment is already reducing farm-grazing capacities in African savannas and this problem is predicted to double by 2050, strategies that improve herbivore ability to consume woody plants will increase forage availability and inform bush control programmes and policies. Moreover, the concomitant increase in CTs by goats exposed to diets with diverse species also has positive implications for animal / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)

This study investigated the effects of Brevibacillus laterosporus and live yeast (LY) on rumen fermentation, nutrient digestibility and microbial protein synthesis. The basal diet was a total mixed ration formulated to fulfil the minimum nutrient requirement of early lactating 600 kg Holstein cow producing 40kg of milk with 3.5 % fat and 3.3 % protein using CPM-dairy software (NRC, 2001). Treatments were: T1 (Control: basal diet with no additive), T2 (Basal diet + Brevibacillus laterosporus), T3 (Basal diet + Live yeast), and T4 (Basal diet + Brevibacillus laterosporus + Live yeast). In situ degradation, in vitro batch fermentation were performed. Data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using PROC GLM (SAS Institute, 2009). The effective dry matter (DM) degradability evaluated at low (0.02) and medium (0.05) ruminal passage rate (ED1 and ED2) were higher (p<0.05) in T1 compared to T2 and T3, but did not differ (p>0.05) between T2, T3 and T4, and between T1 and T4. When evaluated at fast passage rate (0.08) the effective DM degradability (ED3) was higher (p<0.05) in T1 compared to T3 and T4, but did not differ (p>0.05) between T1 and T2. The difference in ammonia nitrogen production was observed only between T1 and T2, and was higher (p<0.05) in T1. The total VFA’s concentration was higher (p<0.05) in T3 compared to the control. All additives decreased the molar percentage of acetate (P<0.05). The concentration of acetate was lower (p<0.05) in T3 and T4 compared to control. Propionate concentration was higher (p<0.05) in T3 and T4 compared to other treatments and lower (p<0.05) in the control compared to the rest of treatments. Butyrate concentration was higher (p<0.05) in T2 and T4 compared to the rest of the treatments, and lower (p<0.05) in T3 than other treatments. The microbial protein synthesis measured as purine derivate done on residues was higher (p<0.05) for T3 compared to T1 and T2, but did not differ between T1, T2 and T4, and between T3 and T4. These results showed that the two additives have different individual effects on DM and CP degradability, but also associative effects in some fermentation parameters such as propionate production. / Agriculture, Animal Health and Human Ecology / M. Sc. (Agriculture)