The purposes of this study were to determine (1) how running kinematics varied across two different speeds (200 and 268m/min), (2) to what degree intense interval training sessions affected running mechanics and (3) whether these changes correlated to changes in running economy (RE). Eleven highly trained male endurance athletes (average VO2max = 72.5 +/- 4.3 ml/kg/min) performed three intense interval running workouts of 10 x 400m at an average running velocity of 357.9 +/- 9.0 m/min, with a minimum of 4 days between runs. Recovery duration between trials was randomly assigned at 60s, 120s, and 180s. The following biomechanical variables were used to assess running kinematics during the last 3 minutes prior to and following each workout at speeds of 200 and 268m/min: maximum knee flexion in support (KFLEX), minimum knee velocity during stance (KVEL), maximum plantar flexion angle at toe-off (PFLEX), shank angle at heel strike (SANG), mean trunk angle during stride cycle (TANG), mean vertical oscillation of center of mass (VOSC), and stride cycle length (SL). Results of this study affirmed our hypothesis that speed significantly impacts on some kinematic variables (KVEL, SANG, SL), and to a degree has shown that pre and post test and recovery conditions creating a fatigued state altered 2 of the kinematic variables (KVEL and VOSC). However, none of the other kinematic variables measured were altered by speed or fatigue in any substantial way, nor were there any clear correlations between changes in running economy and mechanics. Whether the significant kinematic changes that occurred reflect adaptations to fatigue, rather than a failure to compensate for it, is not clear. The interrelationship between metabolic and biomechanical markers of training and performance appears to be complex and somewhat individualistic.

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Much research has looked into how aerobic exericse is important to physical and psychological well-being. However, research is less sure of the how exercise produces psychological benefits. To explore this, running is a form of exercise that deserves particular attention given its possible usefulness to public policy discussions. Running is one of the most accessible and inexpensive forms of exercise, and its popularity is demonstrated by the trend of more and more people participating in local annual marathons. This study performed a longitudinal test to better define the conditions under which average people might enjoy psychological benefits from exercise like running. From self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), motivation is fueled by three basic psychological needs: perceived competence, perceived relatedness and perceived autonomy. In this study, key factors influencing psychological outcomes included runners’ degree of motivation, perceived relatedness and the intensity of their training program. The present study had 59 average runners fill in questionnaires before and after a 12 week marathon training program. The results showed that stress and depression levels were significantly reduced, and perceived relatedness among runners increased. Runners’ degree of motivation, which refers to the degree to which runners felt intrinsically motivated, predicts depression and stress levels after training. It suggested that a higher degree of motivation maximizing stress and depression reduction. In addition, higher levels of perceived relatedness among runners also positively predicts stress reduction. The depression reduction of runners who joined only training was significantly higher than those who joined marathon competition after finishing training. The present study found that this competition effect was fully mediated by the number of long runs runners attended during their training. This finding is tied to the question of how much exercise people need in order to optimally reduce depression. Overall, the present study highlights that a threshold of exercise intensity exists beyond which depression reduction becomes insignificant. In the context of the marathon training under study, four or fewer long runs were the recommended threshold. The present study provided a good overview of the psychological benefits of running for a non-clinical population, and also identified how people might maximize such gains. Application of the findings to the promotion of marathon culture for the betterment of public mental health is discussed. / published_or_final_version / Clinical Psychology / Master / Master of Social Sciences

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The purpose of this study was to explore what the supra-maximal speed interval training effect was on a 40m standing start sprint and timed 3000m running performance was for two separate study groups when using either the AlterG® anti-gravity treadmill, or downhill running as a training intervention, for moderately trained female runners. The level of delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) after each supra-maximal speed interval session was also captured. Data from 20 women was collected during initial pre-intervention testing; involving the 40m standing start sprint and 3000m timed trial run. During a four week training intervention the level of DOMS experienced by participants at increments of 24 hours, 48 hours and 72 hours, in each respective training group was recorded. Post-intervention testing was performed to once again measure the participants 40m standing start sprint and 3000m timed trial run values, results were analysed and compared to pre-intervention data.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a 4-week reduction in training volume and intensity on performance of distance runners. Ten well-conditioned males underwent 4-weeks of base training (BT) at their accustomed training distance (71.8 ± 3.6 km/wk) and pace (76% of total distance above 70% V02 max intensity), before reducing training (RT) for an additional 4 weeks. Training volume was decreased by -.66% to 24.8 km/wk and frequency by 50% to 3 runs per week. Training intensity was reduced such that all running was at less than 70% V02 max (68.2 ± 1.6%). At the end of BT (week 0), and weeks 2 and 4 of RT, resting heart rate, calculated plasma volume, testosterone and cortisol levels, and submaximal treadmill efficiency were assessed. At weeks 0 and 4, V02 max and 5 kilometer race performance was determined. The ratio of testosterone to cortisol was increased significantly with RT (0.054 ± 0.008 at week 0 to 0.082 ± 0.020 at week 4), although the individual testosterone and cortisol concentrations were not significantly altered. Maximum oxygen consumption, and time to exhaustion during the max tests were not altered with RT. Body weight tended to increase (p=0.09) due to a significant increase in percent body fat (p<0.05). Submaximal treadmill runs at 65%, 85%, and 95% V02 max revealed no alterations in absolute V02 while relative V02 decreased significantly. This decrease in relative V02 was due partially to the weight increases and partially to a significant increase in respiratory exchange ratio (RER). Resting and submaximal treadmill heart rate (HR) were unchanged with FIT, while maximal treadmill HR and race HR were increased significantly. Calculated plasma volume was unaltered. Leg and overall ratings of perceived exertion were decreased during RT with the overall rating reaching significance (p<0.05). Blood lactic acid concentration was found to be significantly higher at the 95% V02 max workload following RT (8.39 ± 0.46 vs 9.89 ± 0.46 mmol/L at week 0 and 4, respectively). Five kilometer race time increased significantly from 16.6 ± 0.3 at week 0 to 16.8 ± 0.3 minutes at week 4 (12.1 seconds). It is concluded that a 4-week reduction in training volume and intensity in these runners resulted in a significant decrease in race performance despite the maintenance of aerobic capacity. / School of Physical Education

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the contractile properties of individual slow and fast myofibers in response to various training periods throughout a collegiate cross-country season in male runners. Muscle biopsies were obtained from the gastrocnemius of five runners at three time points during the season; after a summer aerobic training phase (T1); after an 8 week period of intense training (T2) and after a 4 week taper period (T3). Absolute (4.6±0.3 L/min) and relative (71±0.7 mI/kg/min) maximal oxygen consumption were unchanged during the study duration. Run performance (8 km) improved 3% from T1 to T2 (27:26 to 26:38 min:sec) and 1% from T2 to T3 (26:21 min:sec). A total of 328 individual myofibers were isolated and studied at 15°C. MHC I diameter was 3% lower (P < 0.05) at T2 compared to T1 and 4% smaller at T3 compared to T2. MHC I and Ila fibers were 18 and 11 % stronger (P < 0.05) respectively, from T1 to T2. MHC I fibers produced 9% less force (P < 0.05) after the taper (T2-T3) while MHC Ila fibers were 9% stronger (P < 0.05). Specific tension (Po/CSA) increased (P < 0.05) 38 and 26% for MHC I and Ila fibers, respectively from T1 to T2 and was unchanged with the taper. Maximal shortening velocity (Vo) of the MHC I fibers decreased (P < 0.05) 23% from T1 to T2 and 17% from T2 to T3. MHC I peak power decreased (P < 0.05) 20% from T1 to T2 and 25% from T2 to T3. Power corrected for cell size decreased (P < 0.05) 15% from T2 to T3 and was 24% lower at T3 compared to T1 for the MHC I fibers only. MHC Ila diameter, Vo, peak and normalized power were unaltered during the study duration. These data suggest that myocellular function is sensitive to changes in run training and it appears that MHC I fibers are moreaffected than MHC IIa fibers. Furthermore, the increase in interval training with the taper may have offset the modest reduction in training volume and prevented any positive adaptations at the cellular level. / Human Performance Laboratory

Access to abstract permanently restricted to Ball State community only / Access to thesis permanently restricted to Ball State community only / School of Physical Education, Sport, and Exercise Science

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