Over the last sixty years, China has gone from Soviet¡¦s centrally planned economy in the Mao Era to Deng Xiao Ping¡¦s economic reform. It has evolved from extreme poverty to rapid economic growth, from equality to inequality and from life improvement to social instability. There might be cause and effect which underlie the process. This study adopts historical research approach and systematic research method to explore the cause and effect which underlie the overall development of the major economic policy-making in the four eras: Planned economy by Mao Ze Dong, reform and openness by Deng Xiao Ping, macroeconomic control by Jiang Ze Min and rural reconstruction by Hu Jin Tao. The results of this study include the following findings: Firstly, from Mao Ze Dong to Hu Jin Tao era there might be cause and effect which exist among the making of China¡¦s major economic policies. Due to the internal revolt and foreign invasion Mao Ze Dong adopted planned economy which resulted in China¡¦s extreme economic poverty. Deng Xiao Ping¡¦s reform and openness for economic development caused severe inflation. Jiang Ze Min¡¦s macroeconomic control was intended to contain the inflation. Subsequently, Jiang¡¦s policy brought about the withering away of the countryside which in turn led to Hu Jin Tao¡¦s rural reconstruction. Secondly, the logic of Chinese leaders¡¦ thinking and personalities have had significant influence on their economic policy-making, however, the effect of ideology has diminished over time. Without the leaderships of strongmen like Mao and Deng, China is forced to systemize its major economic decisions. Hu is now dealing with the problems of reform and openness which have arisen over the last thirty years. Whether he can succeed in dealing with the issues concerning agriculture, countryside, farmers and inflation still remains to be seen. The fifth generation leaderships in the future will be in a position where ¡§the revolution has not yet succeeded and comrades must continue to strife.¡¨ Thirdly, China¡¦s economic policies are influenced by the political environment that its leaders face both back home and abroad. This thesis investigates and grasps the overall system from a causationism perspective which analyzes the political and economic relations behind China¡¦s major economic policy-making. This study has significant reference value for the academia to explore the process of China¡¦s local economic policy-making.

Tagore is viewed through the medium of five books of essays which he wrote in English. Most of the essays are the texts of lectures Tagore delivered to audiences in England and America. They are important because they constitute what Tagore actually communicated to audiences and readers in the West during his tours outside India. The five books are taken chronologically in the chapters of this thesis, each one being a stage on Tagore’s journey. They are read in conjunction with information about his activities in India prior to each particular tour, his encounters during the trip, and any relevant correspondence, in order better to understand the ideas he expresses. A key finding from close study of the essays is the extent to which Tagore draws on his understanding of the evolution and special capabilities of the human species. This philosophical anthropology, or ‘deep anthropology’, is used to describe what mankind ought to be, as well as what we are. Tagore was critical of what he considered the dehumanising economic systems of the West, which were supported by educational methods that focussed narrowly on training people to participate in such systems. The ideal behind the design of Tagore’s own practical projects was a modernised and less restrictive form of traditional society, comprising networks of self sustaining villages or small communities, where children and young people are encouraged to develop their natural curiosity and creativity, and to express themselves freely with body and mind. Tagore’s approach to education and rural reconstruction, if implemented widely as he intended, could lead to a radical redesign of society, a turning of the world upside down. The aim of my dissertation is to help encourage a wider appreciation of Tagore’s pioneering work in this field.

Cette thèse étudie le mouvement de la Nouvelle Reconstruction Rurale (NRR) sous l'angle du développement durable, en prenant l'exemple concret du village de Sancha, une communauté rurale de la province du Guangxi en Chine. Initié en 2003, la NRR est un réseau national de projets de développement qui réunit des intellectuels, des étudiants et des organisations dont l'objectif estd'expérimenter différents modèles de développement agricole et rural en Chine. Comme alternative à l'industrialisation agricole, la NRR favorise la coopération entre les petits agriculteurs, le savoir-faire local et l'agro-écologie pour le développement durable de l'agriculture. Afin de comprendre ses caractéristiques institutionnelles, son fonctionnement et son impact, nous avons mené une enquête dans le village de Sancha pour collecter des données sur les comportements socio-économiques de petits exploitants agricoles, et proposé trois études de cas sur la NRR. Nos analyses empiriques suggèrent que la NRR a promu le développement de l'agriculture biologique dans le village. Les activités sociales sont efficaces pour la construction du réseau social via lequell'agriculture biologique a été diffusée rapidement. Néanmoins, sans la formation technique suffisante et continue, les paysans récemment convertis à l'agriculture biologique tendent à sur-utiliser l'azote et perdent leur avantage environnemental dans la riziculture. Pour améliorer la performance des petits paysans, l'apprentissage participatif social paraît utile mais limité car les petits agriculteurs sont plutôt tirés par la performance économique que par la protection environnementale. De ces résultats, nous recommandons un partenariat Etat-société civile qui combine les services d'extension agricole du gouvernement et la reconstruction rurale ascendante pour l'objectif commun d'une agriculture durable en Chine. / This doctoral thesis studies the New Rural Reconstruction (NRR) movement from a sustainable development perspective, through a concrete case of Sancha village, a rural community in China's Guangxi province. Initiated in 2003, the NRR is a grassroots network of development projects which unites intellectuals, students and organizations to experiment with different models of agricultural and rural development in China. As an alternative to agricultural industrialization, the NRR favors the cooperation of smallholder farmers, local knowledge and agro-ecology for sustainable agricultural development. In order to understand the NRR's institutional characteristics, functioning and impact, we conducted a survey in Sancha village to collect data on smallholder farmers' socio-economic behavior and performed three in-depth NRR case studies. Our empirical analysis suggests that the NRR has promoted the development of organic farming in the village. Social activities are cost-effective for social network building where organic farming is diffused rapidly. Nevertheless, without sufficient, ongoing technical training, farmers newly converted to organic farming tend to overuse nitrogen and lose their environmental advantage in rice production. To improve the performance of smallholder farmers, participatory social learning appears useful but limited because smallholder farmers are interested in economic performance rather than environmental protection. On basis of these results, we recommend a state-civil society partnership which combines the government's agricultural extension services and bottom-up rural reconstruction for the commonobjective of sustainable agriculture in China.

Cette thèse a pour objectif d’explorer la relation entre les caractéristiques socio-culturelles et les politiques de reconstruction post-séisme dans les zones rurales de Azad Jammu et du Cachemire, au Pakistan. L’objet principal est d’examiner les pratiques architecturales traditionnelles : dhajji-dewari et la composition sociale de la communanuté pendant et après la reconstruction. Différents processus sont analysés: comment les aspects socio-culturels des sociétés rurales sont affectés par les politiques de reconstruction? Comment les politiques sont touchées par les aspects socio-culturels des commmunautés? Comment la combinaison des deux influence le processus final?Ce travail de thèse part du constat que 80% des 600 000 bâtiments endommagés ou détruits lors du séisme du 8 octobre 2005 au Cachemire, étaient des maisons rurales provisoires (Katcha). Il s’agit d’examiner jusqu’où le Programme de Reconstruction de Logement Rural (RHRP) qui a concerné quelque 100 000 maisons dhajji, a réduit ou augmenté la vulnérabilité de la zone pour l'avenir. Ce programme a été initié à partir de l’expérience de précédents programmes de reconstruction post-tremblements de terre, qui ont été d’une grande utilité pour les experts. Il restait à analyser les erreurs commises ou répétées par les différents acteurs pendant les phases d’élaboration, de validation, de mise en œuvre, et de suivi des politiques de reconstruction. Les principaux résultats de la thèse couvrent trois thèmes relatifs aux différentes étapes de la reconstruction : la durabilité de la reconstruction ; la réduction de la vulnérabilité de la reconstruction ; les résultats qui n’entrent pas dans les catégories “durabilité” et “vulnérabilité” selon les experts du Cachemire rural. La satisfaction des communautés est l’indicateur principal permettant d’évaluer les principaux résultats. L'étude conclut que la non-prise en compte des aspects socioculturels des communautés pendant la reconstruction peut augmenter la vulnérabilité du scénario de post-reconstruction. Le suivi du programme de reconstruction consiste à évaluer les tendances liées aux maisons en construction. En présentant par des illustrations les détails architecturaux de ces maisons reconstruites, l’écart avec les recommandations est évalué. Après que quelques années, les populations oublient les impacts du séisme et leurs besoins immédiats dictent leurs priorités de décision. Il est suggéré qu'à la fin du programme de reconstruction, la présence des autorités dans la zone reconstruite permette d’assister les populations dans leurs besoins actuels et futurs, et de contrôler le développement des constructions non conformes. / This thesis is aimed at exploring the relation of socio-cultural characteristics and policies with post-quake reconstruction of rural areas of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. The primary concern of the study is limited to examine the traditional architectural practice ; dhajji-dewari and social composition of the community during and after reconstruction. It is analyzed that how the socio-cultural aspects of rural communities are affected by the policies, how policies are affected by the socio-cultural aspects of the community and how both of these can influence the final product. The thesis was rooted in the fact that 80% of the 600,000 damaged/destroyed buildings during 8th October, 2005 Kashmir earthquake were rural temporary (Katcha) houses. It was hence to be investigated that how far the Rural Housing Reconstruction Program (RHRP) has reduced (or increased) the vulnerability of the area for future. The impact of any policy launched during this program was not limited to few housing units rather more than 0.1 million dhajji houses could be affected through this. The rural Kashmir reconstruction was commenced with the in-hand knowledge of several previous post-quake reconstruction programs and was appreciated widely by experts. It was yet to be explored that which mistakes were committed/repeated by the stakeholders during policy making, delivery, implementation and post implementation phases. Covering the phases of policy making, delivery and implementation, the major findings of the thesis are categorized into three sections ; the sustainability generating aspects of reconstruction, vulnerability enhancing dimensions of reconstruction, and, those outcomes of reconstruction which are not yet categorized under ”sustainability” or ”vulnerability” by the experts focusing particularly rural Kashmir. Community satisfaction is given primary focus to rate different outcomes.The study concludes that ignoring socio-cultural aspects of the community during reconstruction may lead to vulnerability in post-reconstruction scenario. Considering the post implementation phase, the current trends are observed by examining under-construction houses. By pictorially presenting the architectural details of these houses it is examined that deviations from guidelines are in practice. People start forgetting the disaster impacts after few years and their immediate needs drive their decision priorities. It is suggested that after reconstruction program ends up, some authorities must be present in the reconstructed area to guide people for their current requirements and future needs and also to control the spread of non compliant construction.

This thesis is aimed at exploring the relation of socio-cultural characteristics and policies with post-quake reconstruction of rural areas of Azad Jammu & Kashmir, Pakistan. The primary concern of the study is limited to examine the traditional architectural practice ; dhajji-dewari and social composition of the community during and after reconstruction. It is analyzed that how the socio-cultural aspects of rural communities are affected by the policies, how policies are affected by the socio-cultural aspects of the community and how both of these can influence the final product. The thesis was rooted in the fact that 80% of the 600,000 damaged/destroyed buildings during 8th October, 2005 Kashmir earthquake were rural temporary (Katcha) houses. It was hence to be investigated that how far the Rural Housing Reconstruction Program (RHRP) has reduced (or increased) the vulnerability of the area for future. The impact of any policy launched during this program was not limited to few housing units rather more than 0.1 million dhajji houses could be affected through this. The rural Kashmir reconstruction was commenced with the in-hand knowledge of several previous post-quake reconstruction programs and was appreciated widely by experts. It was yet to be explored that which mistakes were committed/repeated by the stakeholders during policy making, delivery, implementation and post implementation phases. Covering the phases of policy making, delivery and implementation, the major findings of the thesis are categorized into three sections ; the sustainability generating aspects of reconstruction, vulnerability enhancing dimensions of reconstruction, and, those outcomes of reconstruction which are not yet categorized under "sustainability" or "vulnerability" by the experts focusing particularly rural Kashmir. Community satisfaction is given primary focus to rate different outcomes.The study concludes that ignoring socio-cultural aspects of the community during reconstruction may lead to vulnerability in post-reconstruction scenario. Considering the post implementation phase, the current trends are observed by examining under-construction houses. By pictorially presenting the architectural details of these houses it is examined that deviations from guidelines are in practice. People start forgetting the disaster impacts after few years and their immediate needs drive their decision priorities. It is suggested that after reconstruction program ends up, some authorities must be present in the reconstructed area to guide people for their current requirements and future needs and also to control the spread of non compliant construction.