Rural observers of the acceleration in Ontario's urbanization witnessed, in the years before the Great War, both the concentration of industry in urban areas and the spread of communications and technological advances from the towns to the surrounding countryside. All sections of rural society, however, recognized that to them, the drift of population from the rural concession lines to the cities formed urbanization's most important aspect. Debate generated by increasing urban dominance centred around this depopulation of the countryside as the rural inhabitants tried to explain and to solve 'The Problem.' A split over the issue of depopulation developed in the ranks of the vocal section of the rural opinion-makers. One group, led by W. L. Smith of The Weekly Sun, H. B. Cowan of Farm and Dairy and W. C. Good of the Grange, registered increasing alarm at the continual seepage of the rural population into the towns. To them, depopulation placed a series of challenges before rural society. As migration proceeded, they perceived that farmers lost their philosophy of life, Canadian democracy and political morality was threatened and rural social life ruined. Blame for the economic uncertainty facing Ontario agriculture could to a great extent be laid at the feet of the diminished numbers working the farms. A second group, however, comprising the Ontario Department of Agriculture, the staffs of The Canadian Countryman and The Farmer's Magazine, declined to espouse this complete pessimism. In addition to the less beneficial results of depopulation, the latter group viewed the rationalization of land usage, the consolidation of the schools and churches as well as the modernization of rural social attitudes and practices as advantages ultimately accruing to the rural population by reason of their diminishing numbers. ‘The Problem’ resulted in much heart-searching among these two affected groups who spent much of their time and energy determining possible origins and their solutions. In their reappraisal of the purpose of the rural family school, church and newspapers, both groups agreed that these institutions could provide valuable aid in stopping the population lead from the countryside. By reforming these basic foundations, traditional agrarian values would be reaffirmed and deficiencies in urban life highlighted. Lack of social amenities became, in the eyes of rural observers, a cause of outmigration which could be remedied by bringing to the countryside the urban telephones, electricity and running water which exercised such an attraction for rural folk. Increasing profit by improving agricultural methods gained popular approval by the farm press as a means of arresting the cityward trek. All these causes and remedies were generally endorsed by the Good-Drury faction and the Farmer’s Magazine-Canadian Countryman group . The former held, contrary to the latter, that these reasons were not sufficient explanations of all factors underlying depopulation. This more radical group believed that solving these issues alone would not stop depopulation. In fact, some of the Good-Drury followers pointed out that adoption of many of these urban-developed mechanical devices and cosmopolitan social outlook would only modify traditional rural society beyond recognition. Rural life as a copy of urban life style could be but a pale and unsatisfactory imitation. In addition to promoting unique social institutions for rural areas, the Good-Drury 'radicals' extended their economic arguments farther than the more adaptive group were prepared to follow. Depopulation, the radicals averred, resulted mainly from economic inequities perpetrated by the control over the system of distribution exercised by urban bankers, railroaders, manufacturers and land speculators. These men, by controlling the political system and instituting devices such as the tariff, raised their own and lowered the farmers' profits. Specifically, the radical farmers proposed lowering tariffs and stricter control over land-sale profits and railroads in order to check urban exploitation of the countryside. They recognized, however, that a general solution could only completely end depopulation and economic serfdom if rural voters united and captured control of the political system. Throughout the years prior to the Great War, both the 'radicals' and the 'adaptors' gained adherents among the rural population in numbers large enough to maintain an equilibrium. A rural political revolt against urban domination did not succeed, but agitation to reform the system of distribution continued. Only the pressures of the Great War and the organization of the United Farmers of Ontario finally caused depopulation to dethrone the provincial government in 1919. / Arts, Faculty of / History, Department of / Graduate

The purpose of the study is to substantiate and document the notion that a comprehensive planning policy for integrated socio-economic development aimed at solving the underlying problems of the rural "push" factors would yield more effective solutions to rural-urban migration as a generic issue in developing regions than measures already proposed in these regions. The premise was examined within the context of the existing Government measures geared to make rural living more attractive in the developing country of Jamaica, West Indies. Based on a review of rural-urban migration in Latin America, of which Jamaica is a part, it is indicated that the movement has reached unprecedented levels. The impoverished economic and social conditions of the countryside are real as evidenced by the ever increasing flow of rural-urban migration mainly to one urban area. The cities are unable to employ all their inhabitants and consequently various measures of raising the level of rural living have been introduced. In Latin America the principal focus has been on land tenure and colonization but these have always fallen short of their aim. Such schemes need groupings of people into urban centres for their success. Bolder attempts at coordination of measures at the national and local level are vital. The case study of Jamaica reveals that rural to urban migration has become an increasingly important phenomenon. The main currents have meant a movement to the Kingston and St. Andrew Metropolitan Area. However, the rate and volume of the movement far exceed the current absorptive capacities of this area and this has created problems pertaining to under-employment, housing shortages and certain social ills. Faced with these problems, the Government of Jamaica has, since 1938, initiated measures to halt the growing trek of rural population to the city. The Land Settlement scheme involving the distribution of small plots of land to the rural population, previously introduced in the l880’s, was vigourously pursued after 1938. Since the 1940's, however, the main area of concentration of policy switched to measures for rehabilitation of the hillsides and improvements with the land. These have been implemented through the Farm Improvement Scheme, 1947; the Land Authorities Law, 1951; the Farm Recovery Scheme, 1951; the Farm Development Scheme, 1955; the Agricultural Development Programme, I960 and the Farm Production Programme in 1963. Improvements to the social environment have been mainly through the Social Development Commission and the 4-H Clubs. While the schemes have been instrumental in increasing total area under cultivation they have been far from successful in raising rural levels of living with the aim of controlling rural-urban migration. They were only concerned with issues relating to the land with insufficient thought for the people who occupied that land. The attempts made by the Social Development Commission have achieved little, if any, success in stemming rural flows. This thesis reveals a formidable gap between these government measures and what rural Jamaica requires. The needs of the latter are non-agricultural in nature and revolve about the provision of modest urban services which have become a normal feature of daily living. It is concluded that this could be achieved through a system leading to the "rurbanization" of rural Jamaica—a process that would create an urban environment but at the same time would not be truly urban. All the basic services and amenities would be provided and concentrated in selected existing centres. These "rurban" centres arranged in an integrated manner would have advantages that would serve to facilitate the transformation of rural areas into stable societies, and in addition assist the process of modernization which Jamaica is now undergoing. For best results the island must be divided into regions. It is concluded that the Town Planning Department of Jamaica should guide the physical planning of these settlements as it is already charged with the necessary powers. The solution has implications not only for Jamaica but also for other developing regions. Plans for rural reconstruction aimed at curbing rural-urban migration in these areas need to give a more prominent place to basic urban factors than has been customary in the past. An urban environment is necessary for the modernization process the regions are now pursuing. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Community and Regional Planning (SCARP), School of / Graduate

In recent years, an increasing number of rural grandmothers in mainland China have migrated to cities for the sake of their grandchildren and to share the burden of childcare with their adult children. In childrearing cooperation, the rural-urban migrant grandmothers face not only intergenerational differences but also rural-urban differences in childrearing. When rural-urban grandmothers provide childrearing assistance in cities, their grandmothering is influenced by the urban childrearing discourse through their cooperation with urban parents. However, our knowledge about their grandmothering is limited. Moreover, existing studies on the migrant elderly tend to describe grandparents as having outdated values and being passively constrained by the structure; therefore, these studies have neglect their agency. In my research, I explore how rural-urban migrant grandmothers contribute to grandchildren's daily care, education and discipline under the influence of urban childrearing discourse, which is mainly reflected in their cooperation with their adult children. I will examine both the intergenerational solidarity and conflicts in the cooperation. Moreover, inspired by the concept of agency, I argue that rural-urban migrant grandmothers are strategic agents, and I examine their agency in response to the urban childrearing discourse. My qualitative data are obtained through in-depth interviews and participant observations with 20 rural-urban migrant grandmothers in two field sites--Beijing and Taian--on mainland China. I find that the cooperation mechanism reflects flexibility, diversity and dynamic. The rural-urban grandmothers use diverse methods to cooperate with their adult children and to contribute to grandchildren's daily care, education and discipline. To fulfil their tasks, grandmothers face challenges such as uncertainty, financial disadvantages, and educational disadvantages. Moreover, the grandmothers experience many different childrearing conflicts with the parents, such as consumption, nutrition and health care. However, grandmothers can actively respond to these challenges and use the strategies of constructing an alternative discourse, using alternative methods and learning to cope with the problems. To deal with the conflicts, grandmothers emphasise two narratives: family harmony, which is most important; and, all for the child. Based on these two narratives, grandmothers use different strategies, such as direct and indirect communication, using hidden strategies, compromising, and keeping silence, when helping their adult children during childcare. Located in the context where the family is regarded as a union and the intergenerational relationship is protected, the agency of rural-urban migrant grandmothers is solidarity-oriented and altruist-oriented agency.

No description available.

The principal objective is to study the impact of the land reform program in Iran on rural-urban migration, primarily on landless peasants who consist of more than 2/3 of the rural population. The interrelationships between economic, political, and social factors are stressed.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.

No description available.