Mathematical skill is viewed as critically important in a technologically sophisticated world. Since everyone needs to acquire at least some skills in this learning area, the poor performance of grade 12 learners raises concern. The process during which learners gain awareness of their own thinking processes when solving mathematical problems, is referred to as "metacognition". Metacognitive strategies include knowledge (of oneself as a learner, the task at hand and strategies to be used) and self-regulation (planning, monitoring and evaluation). Metacognitive strategies are linked interactively by its twin process of reflection, eventually facilitating the implementation of certain cognitive strategies. Since metacognitive strategies essentially comprise skills, facilitators of learning should facilitate learners' development and application of these skills and the study and mastery of mathematics in an integrated way, thereby ensuring that learners deliberately and intentionally apply these skills in a satisfactory way. It is important to note that "metacognition" is both directly and indirectly mentioned in the Critical Outcomes stated in Curriculum 2005 - after all, most of the outcomes referred to imply that learners should be directed to reflect on their own thoughts. The primary aim of my study was to investigate the possible value of metacognition for the teaching and learning of mathematics. I used a two-phased, consecutive, mixed research method involving learners as well as in-service and pre-service mathematics facilitators. Results of the quantitative part of my study were triangulated with the results of the qualitative part of my study. My findings indicate, inter alia, that learners' metacognitive strategies as regards prediction, evaluation, monitoring and reflection could be insufficient. In-service and pre-service facilitators of mathematics may very well possess metacognitive skills and utilise them intuitively, however, these skills are not implemented in their classes or learning to a satisfactory extent. Since this is a local study conducted on a relatively small scale, it would be inappropriate to infer. My findings do, however, suggest that implementation of and research on metacognition and metacognitive strategies in the teaching and learning of mathematics require attention at national. tertiary and secondary levels. / Thesis (M.Ed.)--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2006

Why are people unable to adhere to an exercise program? Adhering to an exercise program is complex, and exercisers struggle with a variety of challenges that require self-regulation (e. g. , making time, learning skills, changing behaviour). Bandura (1995b) has deemed the assessment of self-regulatory efficacy to manage the regular performance of health behaviours (e. g. , exercise) essential. Despite this recommendation, few components of self-regulation have been examined in the exercise and self-efficacy research to date (McAuley & Mihalko, 1998). Furthermore, major reviews of the exercise-related self-efficacy literature have demonstrated that task self-efficacy has been the predominant operationalization of the self-efficacy construct, and barriers self-efficacy has been the most prevalent operationalization of self-regulatory efficacy (Culos-Reed, Gyurcsik, & Brawley, 2001; McAuley & Mihalko, 1998). However, self-regulation of behaviour involves more than managing barriers and overcoming their limitations (Barone, Maddux, & Snyder, 1997; Brawley, 2005; DuCharme & Brawley, 1995). In order to examine other aspects of self-regulatory efficacy, self-efficacy theory was used as the underpinning for the three studies in this dissertation (Bandura, 1986, 1997). <br /><br /> In Study One an expanded operationalization of exercise-related self-regulatory efficacy was investigated. The construction of various self-regulatory efficacy indices was informed by self-regulation frameworks (Barone et al. , 1997; Baumeister et al. , 1994). These indices as well as barriers efficacy were used to prospectively predict self-reported exercise behaviour. The hierarchical multiple regression analysis indicated that the expanded self-regulatory efficacy variables (i. e. , scheduling, relapse prevention, goal-setting self-efficacy) explained a significant amount of variance in exercise behaviour. In addition, barriers efficacy also contributed significant, but modest, variance to the model. These results underscore McAuley and Mihalko?s (1998) recommendation that multiple measures of self-efficacy should be used to examine exercise behaviour. The findings also emphasize that a focus solely on barriers as the indicant of self-regulatory efficacy in exercise may be overlooking other aspects of the construct that contribute to prediction. <br /><br /> Study Two extended the descriptive findings of the first study and addressed a recognized research need (Dzewaltowski, 1994; McAuley & Blissmer, 2000; McAuley et al. , 2001). Specifically, this study examined the possibility of individual differences (i. e. , optimism, consideration of future consequences) influencing the relationship between self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behaviour. Results indicated that participants higher in optimism reported significantly greater self-regulatory efficacy and exercise intentions for intensity than did those lower in optimism. In addition, participants higher in consideration of future consequences (CFC) reported greater self-regulatory efficacy and exercise attendance than participants with moderate CFC. Finally, CFC significantly moderated the influence of various indices self-regulatory efficacy on subsequent exercise attendance. However the effect upon the prospective relationship was modest. <br /><br /> Whereas the first two studies examined the predictive relationship between self-regulatory efficacy and exercise behaviour, Study Three focused upon the influence of sources of self-regulatory efficacy in strengthening efficacy beliefs. This investigation concerned the effects of an acute manipulation of self-efficacy information in changing self-regulatory self-efficacy within a special population -- cardiac rehabilitation exercise program participants. According to theory, sources of self-efficacy information are common to task and self-regulatory efficacy (Bandura, 1997). <br /><br /> The study used a 2 (message condition) by 2 (time) design in which cardiac rehabilitation program participants were randomly assigned to conditions. Utilizing a written message employing the self-efficacy sources of verbal persuasion and vicarious experiences, self-regulatory efficacy for the scheduling of <em>independent</em> exercise was targeted within an ?efficacy enhancing? condition. This condition was compared to an ?information control? message of other information relevant to cardiac rehabilitation participants. As hypothesized, the efficacy-enhancing condition exhibited increased scheduling self-efficacy compared to the control condition. As well, exercise-related cognitions (i. e. , intentions for frequency, action plans, behavioural commitment to learning about independent exercise) were superior for the efficacy-enhancing condition participants compared to their control conditioncounterparts. <br /><br /> Taken together, the studies support and extend research on self-regulatory efficacy in the exercise domain. In part, this was accomplished by expanding the operationalization of exercise-related self-regulatory efficacy to represent more components of self-regulation than examined in the exercise literature to date. In addition, these studies extend previous descriptive research by examining the potential moderators of the influence of self-regulatory efficacy on exercise behaviour. Finally, the third study represented one of the first efforts to experimentally manipulate determinants of self-regulatory efficacy for independent exercise in a special population. It supported the hypothesis that informational determinants (i. e. , vicarious experience, verbal persuasion) can be acutely manipulated to increase self-regulatory efficacy among cardiac rehabilitation participants.

Depression is a substantial psychopathology encountered in the dialysis population yet its association with potentially modifiable psychological antecedents are not well known. Of these potential antecedents, individual’s perception of their condition are likely to play an important role in how they adjust to their illness (Leventhal, Brissette, & Leventhal, 2003). The Common Sense Model suggests that illness representations guide the self-regulation of illness (Leventhal, Meyer, & Nerenz, 1980; Leventhal, Nerenz, & Steele, 1984). The model posits that the interpretation of illness (illness perceptions) influence the response and procedures adopted in order to regulate the illness threat. The overarching aim of the work here is to examine whether illness perceptions predict depression and its trajectory in End-Stage Renal Disease (ESRD) patients, and to establish if depression and illness perceptions are associated with adverse clinical outcomes in these patients. In order to achieve these aims it was first important to establish how best to assess depression and illness representations in the context of ESRD. A pilot study investigated whether the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) and the Revised Illness Perception Questionnaire (IPQ-R) could be administered to haemodialysis patients (HD) while actively on dialysis. Patients completed the BDI and IPQ-R while on-dialysis and again at a time when off-dialysis (n=40). Level of agreement revealed no discernable difference between BDI and IPQ-R scores across the two conditions, although there was a slight bias with regards to scoring on somatic items of the BDI while on-dialysis. Given these data, on-dialysis assessments were employed in the studies reported. Furthermore the BDI was compared against a diagnostic standard for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in order to define an adjusted BDI cut-off score that would indicate potential depressive cases. The data revealed that a BDI≥16 had optimal sensitivity and specificity for MDD. This cut-off score was employed to define patients with “probable” depression. The factor structure of the BDI was the focus in the following chapter. BDI data from two larger studies (reported later in the thesis) were pooled in order to conduct confirmatory factor analysis, testing several proposed structures of the BDI. The analysis revealed that two and three factor solutions had relatively poor fit to the data. A relatively novel bi-factor model proposed by Ward (2006) had the best fit. In this model there is a general depression factor that loaded onto all of the 21 BDI items, and two smaller orthogonal cognitive and somatic factors. These factors collectively explained 91% of the total variance in BDI-II total scores, suggesting that the BDI provides a good overall measure of global depressive symptoms. The first study to examine the association between illness representations and depression was a cross-sectional study of established HD patients (n=215). Nearly 30% of the sample were depressed (BDI≥16), highlighting the extent of depressive symptoms in this patient group. Significant differences between depressed and non-depressed patients with regards to illness perceptions were evident. In logistic regression illness coherence, perceived consequences and treatment control perceptions predicted depression. Interestingly clinical variables including co-morbidity were unrelated to depression. This suggests that it is not disease severity or extra-renal co-morbidity per se that are vulnerabilities for depression, rather it is the interpretation of the disease that appears to be important. The proceeding chapter extended this cross-sectional investigation by examining the trajectory of depression (i.e. change in depression) over the first year of dialysis therapy in relation to illness representations. An incident cohort of dialysis patients (n=160) were seen at a point soon after dialysis initiation and followed up 6 and 12 months thereafter. In particular, differences between patients who start dialysis via planned route (i.e. those with progressive renal failure who had been “worked-up” to dialysis) vs. those who started dialysis suddenly (unplanned starters) were sought. Unplanned starters were more depressed than the planned patients and held different illness perceptions. Structural equation modelling of the baseline data revealed that illness perceptions predicted depression, and that path to dialysis had an indirect effect on depression as mediated through illness perceptions. Over time, depression and illness perceptions appeared to remain relatively stable although there was some evidence of a non-linear decline in depression scores over the follow-up period. In addition, illness identity decreased over time, while illness coherence (understanding) increased. Clinical and demographic factors were not associated with the trajectory of depression as assessed using Latent Growth Models. However several illness perceptions were associated with a change in depression over time, suggesting that patient’s illness representations assist in the regulation (or under-regulation) of mood. The first of two clinical oriented chapters examined the utility of illness representations in explaining fluid non-adherent behaviour. HD patients were categorised as either fluid adherent or non-adherent based upon Inter-dialytic Weight Gain (IDWG). Patients in the upper quartile of percent weight gain were defined as non-adherent (IDWG≥3.21% dry weight). The data revealed that non-adherent patients had lower timeline perceptions as compared to adherent patients. Logistic regression models were evaluated in order to identify predictors of fluid non-adherence. After several demographic and clinical variables had been controlled, lower consequence perceptions predicted non-adherence. This data points to the utility of understanding dialysis patient’s personal illness representations in relation to maladaptive health care behaviour. Finally, the potential association between depression, illness representations and short term survival in incident dialysis patients was evaluated. Patients were followed up for a mean of 545 (±271) days in which there were 27 deaths (16.9%). Patients were censored if they were lost to follow-up, transplanted or recovered renal function. In Cox survival models after controlling for several co-variates including co-morbidity, depression significantly predicted mortality. Furthermore, survival models including illness perceptions revealed that treatment control perceptions were also predictive of mortality. These results suggest that depression and beliefs surrounding treatment control contribute to the survival of dialysis patients. Possible explanations regarding these associations are presented. In conclusion the empirical investigations offered here support the thesis that illness perceptions predict depression in dialysis patients. Moreover there is evidence that illness representations are associated with maladaptive health behaviour (non-adherence) in dialysis patients. Depression and illness representations also predict short-term survival in incident patients after adjusting for important co-variates. Recent studies have shown that altering maladaptive illness perceptions via psychological intervention can have a positive influence upon outcomes (Petrie, Cameron, Ellis, Buick, & Weinman, 2002). Given the evidence presented in this thesis, testing interventions that target maladaptive illness representations in order to improve clinical and psychological outcomes seem highly relevant in this setting.

Impulsivity and the effectiveness of a mindfulness-based intervention were explored in relation to improving behavioural self-regulation in adolescents with behavioural, emotional and social difficulties (BESD). A computerised choice task (CCT) was developed to measure delay discounting (a shift in choice from a larger reward to a smaller reward as the delay to the larger reward increases) in adolescents with BESD and compared it with several additional measures of impulsivity. The degree to which impulsivity and thoughts are related was explored using mindfulness measures. Effects of task type (computer versus sand-timer) and task context (school versus house) were also studied. Results suggested an effect of method but not location on discounting. Few between measure comparisons were significant, suggesting the possibility that different impulsivity measures assess different forms of impulsivity. However a significant negative correlation was found between impulsivity and mindfulness. A mindfulness-based intervention was implemented and results suggest potentially beneficial effects of applying mindfulness training to improve self-control and self-regulation in adolescents with BESD. Further research is necessary to determine the effectiveness of mindfulness training in adolescents with BESD, and explore differences between impulsivity measures to assist with effective measurement and intervention.

This study directly tested implications of motivation intensity theory on effort to restrain against a behavioral urge or impulse (i.e. restraint intensity). Two factors were manipulated—magnitude of an urge and the importance of successfully resisting it—with cardiovascular (CV) responses related to active coping measured. Male and female undergraduate students were presented with a mildly- or strongly evocative film clip with instructions to refrain from showing any facial response. Success was made more or less important through coordinated manipulations of outcome expectancy, ego-involvement, and performance assessment. As expected, systolic blood pressure responses assessed during the performance period were proportional to the evocativeness of the clip when importance was high, but low regardless of evocativeness when importance was low. These findings support a new conceptual analysis concerned with the determinants and CV correlates of restraint intensity. Implications of the study and associations with current self-regulatory literature are discussed.

Both physiological and emotional arousal can increase romantic attraction towards a desirable potential partner. Such attraction reflects relationship-initiation motivation, a connection motivation directed at a new partner, because attraction increases the drive to pursue a social interaction or relationship with another person. Therefore, arousal appears to influence the need to belong, the inherent motivation for positive social interactions. A large body of research also reveals that self-esteem influences people’s pursuit of belongingness, especially during relationship initiation. Yet the literature linking arousal and attraction and the research linking self-esteem and attraction have never been connected. The present research shows that self-esteem moderates how arousal influences relationship-initiation motivation. To examine the moderating effect of self-esteem on the relation between arousal and relationship-initiation motivation, I conducted three studies. Study 1 involved manipulating women’s physiological arousal in an anticipated social interaction. Results showed that arousal directly increased relationship-initiation motivation for higher self-esteem individuals (HSEs) but not lower self-esteem individuals (LSEs). Study 2 replicated Study 1 with men, showing that arousal increased relationship-initiation motivation for HSEs but not LSEs, but in this case, the effect wholly depended on men applying a positive emotional label to their arousal. Study 3 involved manipulating both men’s and women’s arousal in an imagined social interaction. For women, arousal directly decreased HSEs’ but increased LSEs’ relationship-initiation motivation, the opposite result to Study 1. For men, arousal directly increased HSEs’ but decreased LSEs’ relationship-initiation motivation, replicating the results of Study 2. My package of studies connects self-esteem and arousal research, unifying two formerly separate subject areas. These findings provide an underlying mechanism (i.e., arousal) that explains how social risk interacts with self-esteem to influence relationship-initiation motivation. Consequently, my research increases the breadth and depth of current self-esteem theories. / Graduate

This thesis reports five studies investigating cognitive processes in eating disorder (ED) psychopathology. Chapter 1 describes background information about EDs. Chapter 2 reviews cognitive theories of Anorexia Nervosa (AN), and discusses how integration of a process-focused framework, originally applied to depression, may advance under-standing of maintaining mechanisms in AN. Chapter 3 reports a focus group with AN patients that explores features of the subjective experience of the disorder. Findings highlight ruminative, avoidant and discrepancy-based thinking: features that are suggested to be indicative of a ‘conceptualising’ mode of processing. Patients’ reports suggest positive effects of a body-mindfulness group, which encourages an alternative, ‘experiential’ mode of processing. Chapter 4 presents data on rumination, experiential avoidance, negative self-beliefs and underlying assumptions in an analogue population and shows elevated levels for ED-concerned individuals on all of these measures. Chapter 5 examines mode of processing effects (conceptual vs. experiential) in an analogue population. Findings show differential stress-induced emotional reactivity, particularly in the ED-concerned group. Chapter 6 investigates mode of processing effects in a sample of AN patients. Results confirm that modes of processing have differential effects on stress-induced emotional reactivity. Chapter 7 presents data from a 10-month follow-up of AN patients. This study shows that changes in ED-symptoms are associated with changes in rumination, avoidance and aspects of schematic thinking. Differential stress-induced reactivity is associated with outcome. Finally, chapter 8 discusses theoretical and clinical implications of this research and the mode of processing framework in EDs, particularly AN, as well describing how future investigations may continue integrating this framework to the study of ED psycho-pathology. The current findings suggest that both cognitive-affective content and the underlying mental processing activity need consideration in cognitive models of EDs.

This study examined relationships between college students’ writing achievement goal orientations, writing self-regulation, and writing grades. The study was conducted in a postsecondary setting at a large public university in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States. Using multivariate quantitative techniques (confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling), survey and writing sample data were gathered to address the following research questions: Do college students’ writing achievement goals relate to their writing grades; do college students’ writing achievement goals relate to their writing self-regulation; and, does writing self-regulation partially mediate the relationship between writing achievement goals and writing grades in college writing classrooms? A convenience sample of 107 participants completed both the survey and writing prompt portions of the study. Findings showed that all three writing achievement goal orientations tested (mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance) were related to college students’ writing self-regulation. However, only writing performance-approach orientation was related to college students’ writing grades. Additionally, writing self-regualtion did not partially mediate the relationship between all three writing achievement goal orientations and writing grades as expected. Writing self-regulation did fully mediate the relationships between writing mastery and performance-avoidance goal orientations and writing grades, but failed to mediate the relationship between writing performance-approach goal orientation and writing grades. These findings contradict some of the prior literature on achievement goal orientations and self-regulation. However, these results help bridge a gap in the achievement goal orientation and self-regulation research, as prior studies have predominantly focused on PK-12 settings and domains other than writing (reading, mathematics, science, etc.). The findings from this study are limited by the size and nature of the sample, and the survey items used. Future studies should attempt to gather further insight into the goals college students set for their writing, how those goals impact their self-regulation behaviors, and ultimately their writing grades.

v anglickém jazyce In the present work, I am primarily concerned with the approach of mentalization by Fonagy (Fonagy, 2006; Fonagy & Target, 2001; Fonagy & Target, 2002; Fonagy, Gergely, Jurist & Target, 2008; etc.), which is strongly associated with the attachment theory, psychoanalysis and also developmental psychology. Centrality to the development of mentalization are early relationships. I will present some authors, which dealt with this subject matter, psychoanalysts, development psychology and attachment theory, focusing on the attachment theory of John Bowlby. The aim of this work is to introduce the important coherences, in the literature empirically investigated factors that influence the development of reflective capacity - in particular the environmental factors (parents, foster parents, peers) and the development background of the child.

1 ABSTRACT Stock Exchange The contents of the notion "stock exchange" change in time. Factors inducing these changes are intertwined and influence each other. The introduction of modern telecommunication technologies in 1980s brought about a process of change in the notion of "stock exchange". This factor mainly influenced the territorial aspect of said notion. Modern communication technologies allowed for integration of capital markets within Europe. This integration required unification of legislation in EU Member States. The crucial piece of Czech legislation implementing European norms in the area of stock exchange markets is the Act No. 256/2004 Coll. on Business on Capital Market. The greatest influence on the notion of "stock exchange" has had the transposition of the EU MiFID directive into that act in 2008. The changes introduced by this directive have led to vacating tne notion of "stock exchange" in legal terms with the term itself being replaced by "operator of the regulated market". Over the past decade the supervision and regulation on both European and national levels have undergone substantial changes. The changes and innovation in the investment instruments market have called for changes in institutional setting of supervision and regulation. These changes in supervision and regulation have...