This study combines an investigation of the ecology of the saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica) and the epidemiology of diseases shared by saigas and domestic livestock. Ecological data from 2 saiga populations were collected and analysed, including a comparison of 3 ageing techniques for saigas. A serological survey of 1,151 saigas and 958 domestic livestock (cattle, sheep and goats) was carried out. Official data and fann surveys provided information on policy and practice in disease control, showing that both veterinary provision and livestock numbers have collapsed since independence. Seroprevalence to brucellosis among saigas was 3.8% in the Betpak-dala population and zero in the Ustiurt population. No serological evidence of infection with foot-and-mouth disease (FMD), bluetongue, epizootic haemorrhagic disease (EHD), peste-des-petitesruminants (PPR) or rinderpest was found among saigas. A recently-developed enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to differentiate vaccine-induced antibodies to those caused by infection with FMD virus (FMDV). Serological evidence of infection with FMDV was found only in cattle (2.9%). Vaccine-induced antibodies to FMDV were found among 29.0% of cattle, 13.8% of sheep and 5.8% of goats, reflecting speciesdependent vaccination. Seroprevalence to brucellosis was 5.4% among cattle, 1.3% among sheep and 0.7% among goats. Of diseases not previously recorded in Kazakhstan, seroprevalence to bluetongue among livestock averaged 23.2%, EHD and PPR were found at low levels, and rinderpest was not found. Modelling of FMD and bluetongue sero-status found significant farm-level clustering. For FMD this may reflect the behaviour of individual owners, but as bluetongue is unrecognised, it may reflect small-scale differences in exposure to the vector. A model framework was developed for FMD dynamics in saigas, including a seasonally dependent transmission coefficient (P). This produced a pattern of FMD outbreaks similar to that seen in Kazakhstan in the 1950s and 1960s, with large epidemics in spring, dying out in the summer or autumn. The results suggest that FMD is not endemic in saiga, and that the saiga population is not a reservoir of infection for domestic livestock. However, saigas may constitute a reservoir of infection for brucellosis if full control of this disease in domestic livestock were attempted. Recommendations are made for disease control and saiga conservation in the light of these findings.

This thesis examined the prevalence and risk factors for lameness, limb lesions and claw lesions in pigs, and the influence of gilt nutrition on indicators of limb health through a cross-sectional survey and two cohort studies. A cross-sectional survey of 68 integrated pig farms in Ireland on lameness, limb and claw lesions of 2948 piglets, 3368 weaners, 544 lactating sows, 1289 finishers, 525 replacement gilts, 518 pregnant gilts and 604 pregnant sows was conducted. The prevalence of foot lesions, limb lesions and lameness was determined for each appropriate group and data relating to environmental and management parameters were also collected to identify risk factors. There was a high prevalence of lameness in finishers, gilts and sows. Lameness prevalence is higher in group gestation housing systems than in gestation stalls. Slat void width and the frequency of pen washing increased the risk of lameness in finisher pigs. Floor type, particularly the floor material used influenced both limb and foot lesions. Two cohort studies were conducted to investigate the effect of three dietary regimes for replacement gilts on lameness, areal bone mineral density (aBMD), behaviour, limb, claw and joint lesions and carcass traits. In the first, a diet specifically formulated for developing gilts and fed restrictively from 70kg until 2 weeks before the gilts approximate weight at first service, reduced lameness, joint lesion prevalence and claw unevenness when compared to the two most commonly practiced feeding regimes for developing gilts. In the second, a diet specifically formulated for developing gilts fed ad-libitum from 65 kg reduced lameness and increased aBMD when compared to the two most commonly practiced feeding regimes for developing gilts. In conclusion, this study provides valuable information on lameness, foot and limb lesion prevalence and risk factors as well as providing information on nutritional strategies that could help to address the current high levels of lameness in replacement gilts.

Gathering data on the veterinary caseload will be useful in directing both future research and the veterinary curriculum. Previous studies have used clinical records to gather this data, but the validity of these methods remains unclear. Direct observation has been used to collect similar data in medicine and may be better able to capture the complexities of the consultation. The aim of the study was to determine the common patients, presentations, diagnoses and interventions during small animal veterinary consultations using direct observation. A network of 8 sentinel practices in England and Scotland was recruited. A tool allowing collection of data during direct observation of consultations was developed and piloted. The tool was used to gather data on patient characteristics, problems discussed, diagnoses made and outcomes selected. Practice visits were conducted to feedback results and stimulate discussion. Consultations were highly complex, with discussion of multiple problems, leading to a wide range of diagnoses and outcomes. Discussion of several problems appeared to be associated with increased consultation length. Preventive medicine was a common reason for presentation, and these consultations were amongst the most complex. A definitive diagnosis was not reached for most problems, yet actions were frequently taken. Feedback from the practices involved was positive, and discussions surrounding priorities for future research echoed the findings of the study. Direct observation of consultations allows caseload to be recorded in great detail, which may not be possible with other collection methods. The results are the first step in directing future research towards areas relevant to practitioners and will also be useful in guiding the veterinary curriculum. The way in which future research is conducted should take into account the realities of first opinion practice, such as the high frequency of comorbidity and polypharmacy, and low frequency of definitive diagnosis.

The dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius) commonly referred to as ‘ship of the desert’ has played an important part in the development and expansion of trading networks across inhospitable habitats over 3000 years, linking Arabian, Asian, African and European civilisations. Caravan roads, which are part of the major trading networks, have facilitated livestock exchange across large geographic distances. Dromedary camels are known to have been extensively used as pack animals along these caravan roads. Archaeological records point towards the southern Arabian Peninsula as the origin of the domestic dromedary camels. However, there is uncertainty about the dromedary’s dispersal out of the Arabian Peninsula to Africa and other parts of Asia. In contrast to other livestock species, the domestication of the dromedary camel has not been investigated using genetic evidence. Also, there is no information available on the genetic relationship between dromedary populations across their entire geographic distribution. Previous genetic studies were limited to a restricted number of animals, often from a single population or a small geographic region within countries. The general aims of this thesis were to characterise the origin and the geographic distribution of genetic diversity in dromedary camels and to understand the demographic history across the species range. To ascertain the global genetic structure and to contribute to the knowledge on the spread of the species after domestication, we sampled 1,083 modern-day dromedary camels from 21 countries representing the species range. Mitochondrial DNA and microsatellite markers were used for these analyses. Nine hundred and seventy animals were investigated using 17 autosomal microsatellite loci, and 759 animals were studied at the mitochondrial DNA level using a continuous 867 bp fragment spanning the end of cytochrome b, the tRNAs threonine and proline, and the beginning of the control region.

Osteoarthritis (OA) is characterised by cartilage degradation, inflammation and pain within synovial joints. OA is a major cause of morbidity in the elderly human population and in companion animals such as horses. Changes in expression and activity of pro-inflammatory cytokines, chemokines and catabolic mediators contribute towards OA progression, which can be studied using in vitro culture models and proteomic approaches. This project studied the secretome from an in vitro model of equine articular cartilage, aiming to develop understanding of cartilage biology and degradative processes. These studies also aimed to identify protein markers relevant to this explant model for screening anti-inflammatory properties of novel therapeutics. To evaluate responses to OA associated pro-inflammatory IL-1β and the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), carprofen, time courses of protein release were established in the explant model. The cartilage secretome contained cartilage extracellular matrix (ECM), non-ECM and intracellular proteins, all of which were identified by high-throughput mass spectrometry (MS). Semi-quantitative differences in protein release were reported between untreated control and IL-1β stimulated cartilage by MS. The release of glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) initiated by IL-1β was delayed when carprofen was present. The proteomic sample preparation method was adapted to deplete high abundance proteins that can hinder the detection of low level proteins in high-throughput MS analysis. Three depletion approaches were applied: CPC precipitation, concanavalin A lectin chromatography and Proteominer™ technology. These approaches provided additional identifications of the non-ECM secreted proteins MMP-10 and IL-9, and of additional intracellular proteins. Further optimization of these methods could further enhance the detection of low level proteins. Proteins identified by MS analysis of the cartilage secretome were assessed using quantitative western blotting analysis. Carprofen significantly reduced IL-1β stimulated release of MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-13 and a fibronectin degradation product. Levels of clusterin were reduced by IL-1β and carprofen treatments. These specific proteins were shown to be markers of IL-1β stimulated inflammation and degradative processes, which can be significantly reduced by an anti-inflammatory such as carprofen. This thesis describes the use of proteomics with other approaches to study the effects of IL-1β and carprofen on release of several important structural, metabolic and inflammatory related components from cartilage. Carprofen was beneficial in decreasing certain aspects of inflammation and degradation, including significantly reducing release of MMPs and their catabolic products (fibronectin and GAGs) from the ECM. The equine explant model can be further studied with high-throughput MS to assess responses to various stimuli and detect released proteins. In conclusion, anti-degradative effects and MMP inhibition can be specifically monitored within this in vitro equine cartilage model, to screen efficacy of therapeutics and putative anti-inflammatories to relieve OA.

Lameness in sheep is an important welfare concern causing financial loss through lost performance. This thesis increases epidemiological understanding of sheep lameness from the farmers’ perspective, using interdisciplinary approaches. Previous work indicated that routine foot trimming (RFT), used by >75% of farmers to control lameness, correlated with higher lameness prevalences. A within farm, clinical trial using stratified random sampling examined the effect of RFT versus no RFT on 173 ewes. RFT was not beneficial and over-trimming was detrimental. Thirty-five farms were visited to assess accuracy of farmers’ estimated lameness prevalence in their sheep flocks compared with a researcher’s observations. Farmers’ estimates were consistently, closely and significantly correlated with the researcher’s estimates. Successful knowledge transfer and research impact requires understanding lameness management from farmers’ perspectives. Qualitative interviews with 17 farmers examining attitudes towards lameness management were used to inform design of a questionnaire, sent to 1000 randomly selected farmers, to quantify farmers’ attitudes towards lameness. Farmers considered interdigital-dermatitis and footrot distinct. Barriers to prompt treatment (e.g. lack of time/labour) accounted for most observed variance, with non-financial motivators rated higher than financial motivators. Ineffective flock record keeping, environmental subsidies and market price fluctuation may reduce financial motivation. Consistent with the RFT trial, there was no difference (p>0.5) in lameness prevalence by RFT frequency/absence. Despite RFT trial evidence given, farmers were reluctant to stop RFT; with reluctance less from those with higher lameness prevalences, large, commercial flocks, infrequently using parenteral antibacterial treatments or not treating mildly lame sheep. This thesis provides evidence that farmers’ lameness estimates are sufficiently accurate and can be used in research. Routine foot trimming appears to be of no benefit to reduce lameness but farmers require further evidence to be convinced of this. Further farmer focused research into RFT, barrier cause and effect, and whole flock managements is required.

Animal health problems such as Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy and foot and mouth disease caused significant problems for government in the last two decades of the twentieth century. The ministry responsible for animal health policy, MAFF, was replaced by a new department, Defra, which was given a wider role than simply agriculture and farming, and claimed that it would work in a new, more open and transparent way, with wider stakeholder participation. This thesis evaluates this claim and, in particular, asks how far Defra has adopted a way of working consistent with the ideas of ‘new governance.’ It argues that Defra does work in a new governance manner but that this approach is applied inconsistently in the animal health policy sector. Two recent animal health policies – the Animal Health and Welfare Strategy (AHWS) and the bovine tuberculosis strategy serve as case studies to illustrate the argument. The empirical work - interviews, observation and document analysis examines how Defra delivers these policies in practice. A policy network model is then used to examine and explain the extent of network change over time. Key findings are that a distinctive new governance approach can be seen in the case of the AHWS. However, in the case of bovine TB, the lack of stakeholder consensus has limited the opportunity for partnership working, stakeholder participation and open policy making.

Pododermatitis (FPD) is a contact dermatitis commonly observed in poultry, primarily affecting the surface of the footpad and the hock joint, and causes poor welfare and economic losses when severe. Most reported field outbreaks of FPD have been associated with poor litter conditions. There are three important aspects of litter condition associated with incidences of FPD and hock burns (HB) i.e. increased litter moisture, greasy or capped litter as well as high ammonia (NH3) content. Therefore maintaining litter quality and more specifically the moisture content is essential if conditions such FPD and HB are to be controlled. Poor litter condition is caused by an interaction between management, nutrition and intestinal health. In terms of nutrition, dietary density i.e. energy and protein concentrations are important factors in terms of determining litter quality and incidences of FPD, because of the effect that they exert on water intake. Four experiments were used to investigate the effects of nutritional modifications on water intake (WI) and excretion by turkeys. In the first experiment explored the effect of different dietary nutrient concentrations supplemented with and without phytase on WI and excretion. It was noted that excreta moisture content was reduced (P<0.001) as nutrient density decreased whereas nutrient density had no effect (P>0.05) on the cumulative WI. Water output (g/g of weight gain) was higher (P<0.05) for phytase-fed birds but nutrient density had no effect (P>0.05). In the next two experiments floor-pen studies were used to examine the effects of nutrient density and dietary protein concentration (ranging from 77 to 120% of BUT breed recommendation) on litter quality parameters and, therefore, on leg health conditions. In one study the energy and protein ratio were kept constant whereas in the second the protein concentration changed while the energy remained constant (100% of breed requirement). Growth performance parameters were determined for each study which was conducted from 4 to 20 weeks of age. When birds were fed diets in which the energy and protein ratio remained constant the high protein/energy diets resulted in a lower WI and litter moisture content when compared to group fed diet containing lower concentrations of protein/energy (P<0.05). In contrast litter pH and NH3 concentration and prevalence of HB were higher when birds were fed with the high protein/energy diets. Notably there was no effect (P>0.05) of treatment on FPD. Birds fed diets containing a higher than the recommended dietary protein concentration (constant energy concentration) had a higher WI and litter moisture content when compared to group fed diets containing the low nutrient density diets (P<0.001). Likewise, litter pH and NH3 concentration and prevalence of HB and FPD were higher where birds were fed the higher than recommended protein concentration diets. The final experiment was designed to establish the relative importance of protein and potassium in determining WI and excretion. There were six treatments based on three diets containing either 77, 100 and 120% of the dietary protein recommended by the breeder. Each diet was then split into two and one of the two diets was supplemented with K2CO3 to give a K+ concentration of 16.5 g/kg of diet. The remaining diet of the pair was left unsupplemented (ie contained only naturally occurring potassium). It was noted that birds fed with diet containing higher dietary protein concentration had higher WI and moisture output (MO) when compared to group fed diet containing lower dietary protein concentration (P<0.001). The effect within diets containing the same CP and standardised K+ was marginally insignificant (P=0.065) in terms of WI. Whereas birds fed diets containing naturally occurring K+ only had approximately 10% less (P<0.05) MO compared to these fed diets containing the standardised concentration of K+. While recognising that factors such as non-starch polysaccharides (NSP), indigestible fat and trypsin inhibitor could not be excluded totally, it was concluded, on the basis of the experiments conducted, that dietary protein (as provided by soybean meal) was primarily responsible for the higher WI and hence excretion. This then ultimately produces unacceptable litter quality and results in leg health problems in turkeys. To prevent excessive water intake and reduce litter moisture content there should be a correct balance between dietary energy and protein levels. Feeding turkeys lower ideal protein diets containing higher apparent metabolisable energy ratio crude protein (AME:CP) may help to improve the amino acid digestibility and ionic balance and, therefore, litter quality and this will help to decrease leg health problems such as footpad dermatitis and hock burn.

The link between poultry animal production factors and poultry meat processing has not been studied in detail.  The effect of factors such as genotype, sex, age, diet and muscle type on meat processing capabilities such as post-mortem pH, soaked, cooked yield, texture and binding of whole and comminuted meat are reported here.  To determine the processing  capabilities of the meat, various methods were employed, including muscle fibre typing, microscopy and electrophoresis. The breast muscle was more suited to processing that the thigh, particularly with regards to texture.  Genotype was the most significant production factor for processing capabilities: broiler-type birds produced meat which gave higher soaked and cooked yields, was less tough and improved meat bind.  Generally, older animals produced meat less suitable for processing.  Diet had little effect on the processing capability of the meat. The addition of salt and phosphates to poultry meat had a more significant effect on processing behaviour than any animal production factor.  Phosphate increased the soaked and cooked yield, reduced toughness and increased meat bind.  Salt improved the processing performance more than phosphate.  Salt and phosphates added together improved processing performance more than either alone.  This synergistic result was independent of animal production factors. These findings indicate that muscle location, genotype and bird age are the most significant animal production factors.  Additionally, salt and phosphate affect the processing capability of meat more than any of the animal production factors.  Muscle fibre type has no affect on meat processing capability.  Microscopic observations suggest that protein dispersion, decrease in porosity and void size increased cooked yield and meat binding.  The electrophoresis results showed that actin and myosin are the two proteins most dispersed by the action of salt and phosphate.

Spermatozoa are highly specialised cells which display a range of unique features associated with their crucial function of egg fertilisation. One of the most striking characteristics of spermatozoa, in biochemical terms, is the extremely high proportion of long chain highly polyunsaturated fatty acids present as components of the plasma membrane phospholipids. This high degree of unsaturation is almost unique amongst animal cells; the only other cell types which display similar levels of these polyunsaturates are the neurons of the brain and retina. The reason why spermatozoa exhibit such an unusual fatty acid composition is not clear but it is feasible that the highly unsaturated phospholipids may confer a high degree of flexibility on the sperm plasma membrane as well as provide a potential energy source in order to facilitate the characteristic flagellar motion of these cells. There is also evidence that spermatozoa lipids play a crucial role in the membrane fusion and signal transduction events associated with the acrosome reaction and fertilisation. Initial observations were made between the semen of domestic cockerel and bull with respect to animal ageing and semen quality. Within both species similar patterns were observed in that with age there was a loss of the long chain C20 and C22 polyunsaturated fatty acids accompanied by a loss of the major antioxidant enzyme systems. A decrease in phosphatidyl ethanolamine and an increase of phosphatidyl choline with age were also observed to be associated with a reduction in semen quality parameters and fertility in both species. In contrast cockerels displayed significant increases in spermatozoa and seminal plasma lipid levels where the bull exhibited losses, reflecting possible differences in spermatozoa metabolism and function.