Much is known about how organs acquire their identity, yet we are only beginning to learn how their shape is regulated. Recent work has elucidated the role of coordinated cell division & expansion in determining plant organ shape. For instance, in Antirrhinum, leaf shape is affected in the cincinnata (cin) mutant because of an alteration in the cell division pattern. CIN codes for a TCP transcription factor and controls cell proliferation. It is unclear how exactly CIN-like genes regulate leaf morphogenesis. We have taken biochemical and genetic approach to understand the TCP function in general and the role of CIN-like genes in leaf morphogenesis in Antirrhinum and Arabidopsis. Targets of CINCINNATA To understand how CIN controls Antirrhinum leaf shape, we first determined the consensus target site of CIN as GTGGTCCC by carrying out RBSS assay. Mutating each of this target sequence, we determined the core binding sequence as TGGNCC. Hence, all potential direct targets of CIN are expected to contain a TGGNCC sequence. Earlier studies suggested that CIN activates certain target genes that in turn repress cell proliferation. To identify these targets, we compared global transcripts of WT and cin leaves by differential display PCR and have identified 18 unique, differentially expressed transcripts. To screen the entire repertoire of differentially expressed transcripts, we have carried out extensive micro-array analysis using 44K Arabidopsis chips as well as 13K custom-made Antirrhinum chips. Combining the RBSS data with the results obtained from the micro-array experiments, we identified several targets of CIN. In short, CIN controls expression of the differentiation-specific genes from tip to base in a gradient manner. In cin, such gradient is delayed, thereby delaying differentiation. We also find that gibberellic acid, cytokinin and auxin play important role in controlling leaf growth. Genetic characterization of CIN-homologues in Arabidopsis Arabidopsis has 24 TCP genes. Our work and reports from other groups have shown that TCP2, 4 and 10 are likely to be involved in leaf morphogenesis. These genes are controlled by a micro RNA miR319. To study the role of TCP4, the likely orthologue of CIN, we generated both stable and inducible RNAi lines. Down-regulation of TCP4 transcript resulted in crinkly leaves, establishing the role of TCP4 in leaf shape. To study the function of TCP2, 4 & 10 in more detail, we isolated insertion mutants in these loci. The strongest allele of TCP4 showed embryonic lethal phenotype, indicating a role for TCP4 in embryo growth. All other mutants showed mild effect on leaf shape, suggesting their redundant role. Therefore, we generated and studied various combinations of double and triple mutants to learn the concerted role of these genes on leaf morphogenesis. To further study the role of TCP4 in leaf development, we generated inducible RNAi and miRNA-resistant TCP4 transgenic lines and carried out studies with transient down-regulation and up-regulation of TCP4 function. Upon induction, leaf size increased in RNAi transgenic plants whereas reduced drastically in miR319 resistant lines, suggesting that both temporal & spatial regulation of TCP4 is required for leaf development. Biochemical characterization of TCP domain To study the DNA-binding properties of TCP4, random binding site selection assay (RBSS) was carried out and it was found that TCP4 binds to a consensus sequence of GTGGTCCC. By patmatch search and RT-PCR analysis, we have shown that one among 74 putative targets, EEL (a gene involved in embryo development), was down regulated in the RNAi lines of TCP4. This suggests that EEL could be the direct target of TCP4. We have tested this possibility in planta by generating transgenic lines in which GUS reporter gene is driven by EEL upstream region with either wild type or mutated TCP4 binding site. GUS analysis of embryos shows that transgenic with mutated upstream region had significantly reduced reporter activity in comparison to wild type, suggesting that EEL is a direct target of TCP4. We have further shown that TCP4 also binds to the upstream region of LOX2, a gene involved in Jasmonic acid (JA) biosynthesis (in collaboration with D. Weigel, MPI, Tubingen, Germany). TCP domain has a stretch of basic residues followed by a predicted helix-loop-helix region (bHLH), although it has little sequence homology with canonical bHLH proteins. This suggests that TCP is a novel and uncharacterized bHLH domain. We have characterized DNA-binding specificities of TCP4 domain. We show that TCP domain binds to the major groove of DNA with binding specificity comparable to that of bHLH proteins. We also show that helical structure is induced in the basic region upon DNA binding. To determine the amino acid residues important for DNA binding, we have generated point mutants of TCP domain that bind to the DNA with varied strength. Our analysis shows that the basic region is important for DNA binding whereas the helix-loop-helix region is involved in dimerization. Based on these results, we have generated a molecular model for TCP domain bound to DNA (in Collaboration with Prof. N. Srinivasan, IISc, Bangalore). This model was validated by further site-directed mutagenesis of key residues and in vitro assay. Functional analysis of TCP4 in budding yeast To assess TCP4 function in regulation of eukaryotic cell division, we have introduced TCP4 in S. cerevisiae under the GAL inducible promoter. TCP4 induction in yeast cells always slowed down its growth, indicative of its detrimental effect on yeast cell division. Flow cytometry analysis of synchronized cells revealed that TCP4 arrests yeast cell division specifically at G1→S boundary. Moreover, induced cells showed distorted cell morphology resembling shmoo phenotype. Shmooing is a developmental process which usually happened when the haploid cells get exposed to the cells of opposite mating type and get arrested at late G1 phase due to the inhibition of cdc28-cln2 complex. This suggested that TCP4-induced yeast cells are arrested at late G1 phase probably by the inhibition of cdc28-cln2 complex. To further investigate how TCP4 induce G1→S arrest, we carried out microarray analysis and found expression of several cell cycle markers significantly altered in TCP4-induced yeast cells. Studies on crinkly1, a novel leaf mutant in Arabidopsis To identify new genes involved in leaf morphogenesis, we have identified crinkly1 (crk1), a mutant where leaf shape and size are altered. We observed that crk1 also makes more number of leaves compared to wild type. Phenotypic analysis showed that crk1 leaf size is ~5 times smaller than that of wild type. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed that both cell size and number are reduced in the mutant leaf, which explains its smaller size. We have mapped CRK1 within 3 cM on IV chromosome.

[ES] Las plantas monocárpicas se definen como aquellas que florecen, producen semillas y mueren después de un solo ciclo reproductivo. Muchos cultivos de importancia agroeconómica siguen estrategia reproductiva. En estas plantas, después de producir un cierto número de semillas, el meristemo apical del tallo (SAM) cesa su actividad, siendo esta la antesala de su senescencia y muerte. Este fenómeno, estudiado en diferentes especies de plantas monocárpicas, se conoce como Parada Proliferativa (PA). Se encuentra influenciado por múltiples factores, que incluyen la influencia del desarrollo de frutos y semillas, así como las condiciones ambientales de luz, humedad, etc. Todos estos factores son finalmente integrados a nivel genético en la planta. En este contexto, en Aabidopsis thaliana se ha descrito una ruta dependiente de la edad encargada de la modulación del PA, la ruta FUL-AP2. Se ha demostrado que el miR172 y FRUITFUL (FUL) incrementan su expresión con la edad de la planta y regulan negativamente APETALA2 (AP2), que es responsable de mantener la actividad meristemática a través de la acción de WUSCHEL (WUS). En este sentido, se ha sugerido que otros miembros de la subfamilia euAP2, TOE1, TOE2, TOE3, SMZ y SNZ, conocidos colectivamente como AP2-like genes, también juegan un papel crucial en la modulación de la PA. No obstante, estos han sido definidos principalmente como reguladores de la transición floral, y su implicación en la modulación del PA no está bien establecida. Por otro lado, Pisum sativum ha sido, históricamente, una especie ampliamente estudiada a nivel fisiológico en lo que concierne a PA. Sin embargo, hoy aún existen numerosas cuestiones, ambigüedades y discrepancias acerca de la regulación del PA en esta especie. En esta tesis doctoral, pretendemos profundizar en la caracterización de diversos aspectos del PA tanto en Arabidopsis thaliana como en Pisum sativum, con intención de determinar el grado de conservación que existe en este proceso entre estas dos especies monocárpicas. En el Capítulo 1, hemos examinado el papel de todos los miembros de la subfamilia euAP2 en la modulación de la PA en Arabidopsis thaliana, así como su potencial para estrategias biotecnológicas dirigidas a la modulación de la PA. Nuestros resultados sugieren que, a excepción de SMZ, todos juegan un papel crítico en este proceso, siendo inductores de la actividad meristemática. Además, AP2 y SNZ han demostrado tener el potencial para ser usados en estrategias biotecnológicas dirigidas a aumentar la producción de frutos en plantas monocárpicas. En el capítulo 2 se han revisitado los estudios fisiológicos que históricamente han tenido como objetivo determinar el papel de los frutos en desarrollo en la inducción del PA en Pisum sativum. Nuestros resultados sugieren que el desarrollo de semillas determina el momento del PA: cuando se ha producido una determinada biomasa de semillas, la SAM entra en un estado latente. Además, a nivel transcriptómico, Arabidopsis thaliana y Pisum sativum exhiben un comportamiento similar en cuanto a la influencia de las semillas en la actividad meristemática y el PA. Finalmente, en el Capítulo 3, hemos generado herramientas para caracterizar los genes de la subfamilia euAP2 en la modulación de PA en Pisum sativum. Además, sentamos las bases para el estudio de nuevos moduladores de la ruta genética, como Flowering Locus T (FT), postulándolo así como posible florígeno y anti-florígeno de las plantas. / [CA] Les plantes monocàrpiques es definixen com aquelles que florixen, produïxen llavors i moren després d'un sol cicle reproductiu. Molts cultius d'importància agroeconómica seguixen estratègia reproductiva. En estes plantes, després de produir un cert nombre de llavors, el meristemo apical de la tija (SAM) cessa la seua activitat, sent esta l'avantsala de la seua senescència i mort. Este fenomen, estudiat en diferents espècies de plantes monocàrpiques, es coneix com a Parada Proliferativa (PA). Es troba influenciat per múltiples factors, que inclouen la influència del desenvolupament de fruits i llavors, així com les condicions ambientals de llum, humitat, etc. Tots estos factors són finalment integrats a nivell genètic en la planta. En este context, en Aabidopsis thaliana s'ha descrit una ruta dependent de l'edat encarregada de la modulació del PA, la ruta FUL-AP2. S'ha demostrat que el miR172 i FRUITFUL (FUL) incrementen la seua expressió amb l'edat de la planta i regulen negativament APETALA2 (AP2), que és responsable de mantindre l'activitat meristemàtica a través de l'acció de WUSCHEL (WUS). En este sentit, s'ha suggerit que altres membres de la subfamília euAP2, TOE1, TOE2, TOE3, SMZ i SNZ, coneguts col·lectivament com AP2-like gens, també juguen un paper crucial en la modulació de la PA. No obstant això, estos han sigut definits principalment com a reguladors de la transició floral, i la seua implicació en la modulació del PA no està ben establida. D'altra banda, Pisum sativum ha sigut, històricament, una espècie àmpliament estudiada a nivell fisiològic en el que concernix PA. No obstant això, hui encara existixen nombroses qüestions, ambigüitats i discrepàncies sobre la regulació del PA en esta espècie. En esta tesi doctoral, pretenem aprofundir en la caracterització de diversos aspectes del PA tant en Arabidopsis thaliana com en Pisum sativum, amb intenció de determinar el grau de conservació que existix en este procés entre estes dos espècies monocàrpiques. En el Capítol 1, hem examinat el paper de tots els membres de la subfamília euAP2 en la modulació de la PA en Arabidopsis thaliana, així com el seu potencial per a estratègies biotecnològiques dirigides a la modulació de la PA. Els nostres resultats suggerixen que, a excepció de SMZ, tots juguen un paper crític en este procés, sent inductors de l'activitat meristemàtica. A més, AP2 i SNZ han demostrat tindre el potencial per a ser usats en estratègies biotecnològiques dirigides a augmentar la producció de fruits en plantes monocàrpiques. En el capítol 2 s'han revisitat els estudis fisiològics que històricament han tingut com a objectiu determinar el paper dels fruits en desenvolupament en la inducció del PA en Pisum sativum. Els nostres resultats suggerixen que el desenvolupament de llavors determina el moment del PA: quan s'ha produït una determinada biomassa de llavors, la SAM entra en un estat latent. A més, a nivell transcriptómico, Arabidopsis thaliana i Pisum sativum exhibixen un comportament similar quant a la influència de les llavors en l'activitat meristemàtica i el PA. Finalment, en el Capítol 3, hem generat ferramentes per a caracteritzar els gens de la subfamília euAP2 en la modulació de PA en Pisum sativum. A més, establim les bases per a l'estudi de nous moduladors de la ruta genètica, com Flowering Locus T (FT), postulant-lo així com possible florígeno i anti-florígeno de les plantes. / [EN] Monocarpic plants are defined as those that bloom, produce seeds, and die after a single reproductive cycle. Many economically important crops belong to this reproductive strategy. In these plants, after producing a certain number of seeds, the shoot apical meristem (SAM) ceases its activity, heralding the onset of senescence and plant death. This phenomenon, studied in various monocarpic plant species, is known as Proliferative Arrest (PA), and is found to be influenced by multiple factors, involving the influence of developing fruits and seeds, as well as environmental conditions like temperature, light, and humidity. All these factors are ultimately integrated at the genetic level within the plant. In this context, an age-dependent pathway that controls SAM activity and modulates PA, known as the FUL-AP2 pathway, has been described in Arabidopsis thaliana. It has been demonstrated that the microRNA miR172 and FRUITFUL (FUL) increase with the plant's age and negatively regulate APETALA2 (AP2), which is responsible for maintaining meristematic activity through the action of WUSCHEL (WUS). In this sense, it has been suggested that other members of the euAP2 subfamily, TARGET OF EAT1 (TOE1), TOE2, TOE3, SCHLAFMÜTZE (SMZ), and SCHNARCHZAPFEN (SNZ), collectively known as AP2-like genes, also play a crucial role in modulating PA. However, they have mainly been defined as regulators of the floral transition, and their involvement in PA modulation is not well established. On the other hand, historically, Pisum sativum has been a species widely studied in relation to PA. However, this research often treated PA and senescence as the same process, and uncertainties and ambiguities persist, with discrepancies among different research groups that have treated this topic. In this doctoral thesis, we aimed to delve into the characterization of various aspects of PA in both Arabidopsis thaliana and Pisum sativum and determine the degree of conservation of this process in these two monocarpic species: In Chapter 1, we examined the role of all euAP2 subfamily members in modulating PA in Arabidopsis thaliana and explored their potential for biotechnological strategies aimed at PA modulation. Our findings suggest that, except for SMZ, all members of the euAP2 subfamily play a critical role in this process as inducers of meristematic activity. Furthermore, AP2 and SNZ have shown the potential to be considered prime candidates for use in biotechnological strategies to increase fruit production in monocarpic plants. Chapter 2 revisited the physiological studies that have historically aimed to determine the role of developing fruits in inducing PA in Pisum sativum. Our results suggest that developing seeds determine the timing of PA: when a certain seed biomass has been produced, the SAM enters a dormant state. Additionally, at the transcriptomic level, Arabidopsis thaliana and Pisum sativum exhibit similar behaviour regarding the influence of seeds on meristematic activity, suggesting that PA could be a conserved process among monocarpic plants. In Chapter 3, we generated tools for characterizing euAP2 subfamily genes in PA modulation in Pisum sativum. Furthermore, we laid the groundwork for the study of new modulators of the genetic pathway, such as Flowering Locus T (FT), suggesting its potential role of florigen and anti-florigen of the plant. / Burillo Richart, E. (2024). Characterization of Proliferative Arrest (PA) Process in Arabidopsis thaliana and Pisum sativum [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/207109