"2009" / Thesis (MSc (Hons))--Macquarie University, Faculty of Science, Dept. of Physics and Engineering, 2010. / Bibliography: p. 163-166. / Introduction -- Design theory and process technology -- 15GHz oscillator implementations -- 24GHz oscillator implementation -- Frequency prescaler implementation -- MMIC fabrication and measurement -- Conclusion. / Advances in Silicon Germanium (SiGe) Bipolar Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor (BiCMOS) technology has caused a recent revolution in low-cost Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit (MMIC) design. -- This thesis presents the design, fabrication and measurement of four MMICs for frequency synthesis, manufactured in a commercially available IBM 0.18μm SiGe BiCMOS technology with ft = 60GHz. The high speed and low-cost features of SiGe Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBTs) were exploited to successfully develop two single-ended injection-lockable 15GHz Voltage Controlled Oscillators (VCOs) for application in an active Ka-Band antenna beam-forming network, and a 24GHz differential cross-coupled VCO and 1/6 synchronous static frequency prescaler for emerging Ultra Wideband (UWB) automotive Short Range Radar (SRR) applications. -- On-wafer measurement techniques were used to precisely characterise the performance of each circuit and compare against expected simulation results and state-of-the-art performance reported in the literature. -- The original contributions of this thesis include the application of negative resistance theory to single-ended and differential SiGe VCO design at 15-24GHz, consideration of manufacturing process variation on 24GHz VCO and prescaler performance, implementation of a fully static multi-stage synchronous divider topology at 24GHz and the use of differential on-wafer measurement techniques. -- Finally, this thesis has llustrated the excellent practicability of SiGe BiCMOS technology in the engineering of high performance, low-cost MMICs for frequency synthesis in millimeterwave (mm-wave) devices. / Mode of access: World Wide Web. / xxii, 166 p. : ill (some col.)

The pressure on clean and sustainable energy supplies is increasing. In this regard energy conversion by electrochemical processes plays a major role, for both fuel cell reactions and electrolysis reactions. The sulphur dioxide oxidation reaction (SOR) is a common reaction found in the Hybrid Sulphur Cycle (HyS) and the HyS is a way to produce large-scale hydrogen (H2). The problem with the use of the HyS and fuel cells is the cost involved as large amounts of Pt are required for effective operation. The aim of the study was to determine whether there was an alternative catalyst which was more efficient and cost-effective than Pt. The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), the ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) and SOR were studied by means of different electrochemical techniques (cyclovoltammetry (CV), linear polarization (LP) and rotating disk electrode (RDE)) on polycrystalline platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd). The SRR and EOR are common reactions occurring at the cathode and anode, respectively, in fuel cells and these reactions have been investigated extensively. The reason for studying the reactions was as a preparation for the SOR. This study compared polycrystalline Pt and Pd for the different reactions, with the main focus on the SOR as Pd is considerably cheaper than Pt, and for the SOR polycrystalline Pd has by no means been investigated intensively. Polycrystalline Pt and Pd were compared by different electrochemical techniques and analyses. The Koutecky-Levich and Levich analyses were used to (i) calculate the number of e- involved in the relevant reaction, (ii) to determine whether the reaction was mass transfer controlled at high overpotentials and (iii) whether the reaction mechanism changed with potential. Next the kinetic current density ( k) was calculated from Koutecky-Levich analyses, which was further used for Tafel slope analyses. If it was not possible to carry out the analyses, the activation energy (Ea) was used to determine the electrocatalytic activity of the catalyst. The electrocatalytic activity was also determined by comparing onset potentials (Es), peak potentials (Ep) and limited/maximum current density ( b/ p) of each catalyst. This study was only a preliminary study for the SOR and therefore, further studies are certainly required. It seemed Pd shows better electrocatalytic activity than Pt for the SRR in an alkaline electrolyte because of similar Es, but Pd produced a higher cathodic current density. Pt showed a lower Es than Pd for the SRR in an acid electrolyte, but Pd delivered a higher cathodic current density. This, therefore, means that the SRR in an acid electrolyte is kinetically more favourable on Pd than on Pt. For the EOR better electrocatalytic activity was obtained with Pd than with Pt in an alkaline electrolyte due to higher current densities at lower potentials and Pd showed lower Ea values than Pt in the potential range normally used for fuel cells. Pd was inactive for EOR in an acid electrolyte, while a reaction occurred on Pt. A possible reason for this observation may be due to the H2 absorbing strongly on Pd thus blocking the active positions on the electrode surfaces, preventing further reaction. Pd showed higher electrocatalytic activity for the SOR due to lower Es and higher current densities at low potentials. From the RDE studies it was established that the SRR in an alkaline electrolyte on polycrystalline Pt and Pd was mass transfer controlled at low potentials (high overpotentials), but the SRR in an acid electrolyte was only mass transfer controlled on Pt. The SOR was not mass transfer controlled on polycrystalline Pt and Pd at high potentials (high overpotentials). These assumptions were confirmed by Levich analysis. Using Koutecky-Levich analysis, it was determined that the reaction mechanism on polycrystalline Pt and Pd changed with potential for SRR in an alkaline electrolyte and the SOR. For the SRR in an acid electrolyte the reaction mechanism remained constant with changes in potential on polycrystalline Pd, but the reaction mechanism on polycrystalline Pt changed with potential. These assumptions were confirmed by the number of e-, calculated using Koutecky-Levich analyses. Levich and Koutecky-Levich analyses were not performed for EOR as an increase in rotation speed did not produce an increase in current density. Tafel slope analyses were conducted by making use of overpotentials and k, where possible. As in the case of ethanol, it was not possible to execute Koutecky-Levich analyses and, therefore, it was not possible to perform Tafel slope analyses using k. Tafel slope analyses for the EOR was therefore performed with normal current densities at 0 rotations per minute (rpm). The reaction mechanisms on Pt and Pd for the SRR in alkaline and acidic electrolytes differed due to different Tafel slopes. Pt and Pd displayed similar Tafel slopes for the EOR in alkaline electrolyte, thus suggesting that the reaction mechanisms on Pt and Pd were the same. For the SOR it seemed that the reaction mechanism on Pt and Pd were similar because of similar Tafel slopes. This was only a preliminary and comparative study for polycrystalline Pt and Pd, and the reaction mechanism was not further studied by means of spectroscopic techniques. / MSc (Chemistry), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The pressure on clean and sustainable energy supplies is increasing. In this regard energy conversion by electrochemical processes plays a major role, for both fuel cell reactions and electrolysis reactions. The sulphur dioxide oxidation reaction (SOR) is a common reaction found in the Hybrid Sulphur Cycle (HyS) and the HyS is a way to produce large-scale hydrogen (H2). The problem with the use of the HyS and fuel cells is the cost involved as large amounts of Pt are required for effective operation. The aim of the study was to determine whether there was an alternative catalyst which was more efficient and cost-effective than Pt. The oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), the ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) and SOR were studied by means of different electrochemical techniques (cyclovoltammetry (CV), linear polarization (LP) and rotating disk electrode (RDE)) on polycrystalline platinum (Pt) and palladium (Pd). The SRR and EOR are common reactions occurring at the cathode and anode, respectively, in fuel cells and these reactions have been investigated extensively. The reason for studying the reactions was as a preparation for the SOR. This study compared polycrystalline Pt and Pd for the different reactions, with the main focus on the SOR as Pd is considerably cheaper than Pt, and for the SOR polycrystalline Pd has by no means been investigated intensively. Polycrystalline Pt and Pd were compared by different electrochemical techniques and analyses. The Koutecky-Levich and Levich analyses were used to (i) calculate the number of e- involved in the relevant reaction, (ii) to determine whether the reaction was mass transfer controlled at high overpotentials and (iii) whether the reaction mechanism changed with potential. Next the kinetic current density ( k) was calculated from Koutecky-Levich analyses, which was further used for Tafel slope analyses. If it was not possible to carry out the analyses, the activation energy (Ea) was used to determine the electrocatalytic activity of the catalyst. The electrocatalytic activity was also determined by comparing onset potentials (Es), peak potentials (Ep) and limited/maximum current density ( b/ p) of each catalyst. This study was only a preliminary study for the SOR and therefore, further studies are certainly required. It seemed Pd shows better electrocatalytic activity than Pt for the SRR in an alkaline electrolyte because of similar Es, but Pd produced a higher cathodic current density. Pt showed a lower Es than Pd for the SRR in an acid electrolyte, but Pd delivered a higher cathodic current density. This, therefore, means that the SRR in an acid electrolyte is kinetically more favourable on Pd than on Pt. For the EOR better electrocatalytic activity was obtained with Pd than with Pt in an alkaline electrolyte due to higher current densities at lower potentials and Pd showed lower Ea values than Pt in the potential range normally used for fuel cells. Pd was inactive for EOR in an acid electrolyte, while a reaction occurred on Pt. A possible reason for this observation may be due to the H2 absorbing strongly on Pd thus blocking the active positions on the electrode surfaces, preventing further reaction. Pd showed higher electrocatalytic activity for the SOR due to lower Es and higher current densities at low potentials. From the RDE studies it was established that the SRR in an alkaline electrolyte on polycrystalline Pt and Pd was mass transfer controlled at low potentials (high overpotentials), but the SRR in an acid electrolyte was only mass transfer controlled on Pt. The SOR was not mass transfer controlled on polycrystalline Pt and Pd at high potentials (high overpotentials). These assumptions were confirmed by Levich analysis. Using Koutecky-Levich analysis, it was determined that the reaction mechanism on polycrystalline Pt and Pd changed with potential for SRR in an alkaline electrolyte and the SOR. For the SRR in an acid electrolyte the reaction mechanism remained constant with changes in potential on polycrystalline Pd, but the reaction mechanism on polycrystalline Pt changed with potential. These assumptions were confirmed by the number of e-, calculated using Koutecky-Levich analyses. Levich and Koutecky-Levich analyses were not performed for EOR as an increase in rotation speed did not produce an increase in current density. Tafel slope analyses were conducted by making use of overpotentials and k, where possible. As in the case of ethanol, it was not possible to execute Koutecky-Levich analyses and, therefore, it was not possible to perform Tafel slope analyses using k. Tafel slope analyses for the EOR was therefore performed with normal current densities at 0 rotations per minute (rpm). The reaction mechanisms on Pt and Pd for the SRR in alkaline and acidic electrolytes differed due to different Tafel slopes. Pt and Pd displayed similar Tafel slopes for the EOR in alkaline electrolyte, thus suggesting that the reaction mechanisms on Pt and Pd were the same. For the SOR it seemed that the reaction mechanism on Pt and Pd were similar because of similar Tafel slopes. This was only a preliminary and comparative study for polycrystalline Pt and Pd, and the reaction mechanism was not further studied by means of spectroscopic techniques. / MSc (Chemistry), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The resonance in ports is the phenomenon of energy amplification that takes place in a port or a basin if the incident waves have frequencies close to those of the natural oscillation of the mass of water in the port or basin, typically in the range 30<T[s]<300. These low frequency waves, under resonant conditions, are standing waves that magnifies the amplitudes of the oscillations and currents, in the mouth and inside the port. The effects on operational and safety conditions range from the cessation of port activities, damage to mooring systems and ships to floods in areas adjacent to the perimeter of port basins. Countermeasures to mitigate the effects of resonance in ports and basins introduce geometry or bathymetry modifications, reduce energy entering the port or enhance dissipation mechanisms inside the port. Nevertheless, the dissipation of low-frequency waves requires extensive friction mechanisms in the direction of incident waves or turbulent dissipation mechanisms, which are difficult to cope with the demanding maritime space requirements inside the ports and with the berthing functionality of inner port structures. The typical anti-reflective structures for wave attenuation in gravity wall quays of commercial ports are Jarlan-type vertical structures, which consists of a perforated front wall, through which the wave penetrates the hollow interior chamber of the structure, propagating along till reflexing in the reflective rear face, again towards the front wall, and finally passing through it to interfere with the incident waves. The excessive width required for effective damping by phase-interference dissipative mechanism makes it ineffective for low frequency waves. The present Doctoral Thesis suggests the extension of the dissipative technical effects of the Jarlan-type structures for attenuation of low frequency waves with use of long dissipative circuits. Therefore, the Jarlan-type structure with long dissipative circuits for attenuation of resonance in ports is an effective solution in low frequency wave dissipation; it is functional as a quay, as well as constructively and economically feasible. Once concept of circuit is stablished, the Doctoral Thesis systematically progresses through the compulsory stages to obtain the characterization of long-circuit dissipative structure, to end with an optimization model for the dissipative design of such structures. The Doctoral Thesis combines an original experimental methodology, which takes advantage of the inevitable multi-reflections in the 2D flumes for the simulation of the resonant conditions in an isolated narrow rectangular basin, with an exponential model of energy decay, introducing the length-effective circuit concept, as an indicator of efficiency and design parameter. A number of dissipative efficiency indicators including an estimation of the reflection coefficient of the tested antireflective structures and even the individual dissipative circuits, are defined with the exponential decay model, so making possible the comparison with other methodologies. Finally, a novel technique which combines the exponential decay model, with the experimental results, is used in this Doctoral Thesis to estimate the optimal circuit length according to the type of cell and to obtain the a theoretic optimum design of the anti-reflective structures of long dissipative circuits for the attenuation of the resonance in ports. / La resonancia en puertos es el fenómeno de amplificación de energía que tiene lugar en un puerto o dársena cuando las ondas incidentes tienen frecuencias próximas a las naturales de oscilación de la masa de agua en el puerto o dársena, típicamente en el rango 30<T[s]<300. Estas ondas de baja frecuencia, en condiciones de resonancia, se manifiestan como ondas estacionarias magnificando las amplitudes de las oscilaciones y las intensidades de las corrientes en la bocana y en el interior del puerto. Los efectos sobre las condiciones operativas y de seguridad abarcan desde el cese de actividades portuarias, daños en los sistemas de amarre y buques, hasta inundaciones de las áreas contiguas al perímetro de las dársenas portuarias. Las medidas para paliar los efectos de la resonancia en puertos y dársenas introducen cambios en la geometría o en el fondo, reducen la energía que entra al puerto o mejoran los mecanismos de disipación en el interior del puerto. Pero la disipación de las ondas de baja frecuencia requiere mecanismos de fricción de gran extensión en la dirección de las ondas incidentes o mecanismos de disipación turbulenta, difícilmente compatibles con los exigentes requerimientos de espacio marítimo en el interior de los puertos y con la funcionalidad operativa de atraque de las estructuras portuarias. En muelles de gravedad para uso comercial, las estructuras antirreflejantes habituales para la atenuación de oleaje son las estructuras verticales tipo Jarlan, que consisten en un paramento frontal perforado, a través del cual la ola penetra en la cámara hueca interior de la estructura, propagándose hasta ser reflejada en el paramento trasero impermeable, nuevamente hacia el paramento frontal, que atraviesa para interferir con el oleaje incidente. Este mecanismo de disipación por interferencia de ondas en oposición de fase se muestra ineficaz para ondas de baja frecuencia, debido a que requieren unos anchos excesivos para una amortiguación efectiva. La presente Tesis Doctoral plantea la extensión de los efectos técnicos disipativos de las estructuras Jarlan para la atenuación de las ondas de baja frecuencia mediante el uso de circuitos disipativos largos. La estructura tipo Jarlan con circuitos largos para la atenuación de la resonancia en puertos se muestra una solución eficaz en la disipación de ondas largas, directamente funcional como muelle, así como viable constructiva y económicamente. A partir de la definición de circuito, la Tesis Doctoral desarrolla sistemáticamente los pasos necesarios para obtener la caracterización disipativa de una estructura disipativa de circuitos largos, estableciendo finalmente un modelo para la optimización del diseño de dichas estructuras. La presente Tesis Doctoral combina una nueva metodología experimental, que aprovecha las inevitables multirreflexiones en los canales de ensayos 2D para la simulación de las condiciones resonantes de una dársena rectangular estrecha aislada, con un modelo exponencial de disipación de energía introduciendo el concepto de longitud de circuito efectiva, como indicador de la eficiencia y parámetro de diseño. El modelo exponencial de amortiguación permite la definición de diversos indicadores de la eficiencia disipativa de las estructuras antirreflejantes ensayadas así como de los propios circuitos disipativos independientemente, incluyendo la estimación del coeficiente de reflexión con lo que es posible la comparación con otras metodologías. Por último, el modelo exponencial combinado con los resultados experimentales es utilizado en esta Tesis Doctoral para estimar la longitud óptima de circuito en función del tipo de celda, así como para obtener el diseño óptimo teórico de las estructuras antirreflejantes de circuitos disipativos largos para la atenuación de la resonancia en puertos. / La ressonància en ports és el fenomen d'amplificació d'energia que té lloc en un port o dàrsena quan les ones incidents tenen freqüències pròximes a les naturals d'oscil·lació de la massa d'aigua en el port o dàrsena, típicament en el rang 30<T[s]<300. Aquestes ones de baixa freqüència, en condicions de ressonància, es manifesten com ones estacionàries magnificant les amplituds de les oscil·lacions i les intensitats de les corrents en la bocana i en l'interior del port. Els efectes sobre les condicions operatives i de seguretat van des del cessament d'activitats portuàries i danys en els sistemes d'amarratge i vaixells, fins a inundacions de les àrees contigües al perímetre de les dàrsenes portuàries. Les mesures per a pal·liar els efectes de la ressonància en ports i dàrsenes introdueixen canvis en la geometria o en el fons, redueixen l'energia que entra al port o milloren els mecanismes de dissipació en l'interior del port. Però la dissipació de les ones de baixa freqüència requereixen mecanismes de fricció de gran extensió en la direcció de las ones incidents o mecanismes de dissipació turbulenta, difícilment compatibles amb els exigents requeriments d'espai marítim en l'interior dels ports i amb la funcionalitat operativa d'atracada de les estructures portuàries. En molls de gravetat per a ús comercial, les estructures antireflectants habituals per a l'atenuació d'onatge són les estructures verticals tipus Jarlan, que consisteixen en un parament frontal perforat, a través del qual l'ona penetra en la cambra buida interior de l'estructura, propagant-se fins a ser reflectida en el parament posterior impermeable, de nou cap al parament frontal, que travessa per a interferir amb l'onatge incident. Aquest mecanisme de dissipació per interferència d'ones en oposició de fase es mostra ineficaç per a ones de baixa freqüència, a causa de que requereixen uns amples excessius per a un amortiment efectiu. La present Tesi Doctoral planteja l'extensió dels efectes tècnics dissipatius de les estructures Jarlan per a l'atenuació de las ones de baixa freqüència mitjançant l'us de circuits dissipatius llargs. L'estructura tipus Jarlan amb circuits llargs per a l'atenuació de la ressonància en ports es mostra com una solució eficaç en la dissipació d'ones llargues, directament funcional com a moll, i a més a més, viable constructiva i econòmicament. A partir de la definició de circuit, la Tesi Doctoral desenvolupa sistemàticament els passos necessaris per obtindre la caracterització dissipativa d'una estructura antireflectant de circuits llargs, establint finalment un model per a l'optimització del disseny de dites estructures. La present Tesi Doctoral combina una nova metodologia experimental, que aprofita les inevitables multirreflexions en els canals d'assajos 2D per a la simulació de les condicions ressonants d'una dàrsena rectangular estreta aïllada, amb un model exponencial de dissipació d'energia, introduint el concepte de longitud de circuit efectiva, com a indicador d'eficiència i paràmetre de disseny. El model exponencial d'amortiment permet la definició de diversos indicadors de l'eficiència dissipativa de les estructures assajades i, fins i tot dels propis circuits dissipatius independentment, incloent l'estimació del coeficient de reflexió amb el qual es possible la comparació amb altres metodologies. Per últim, el model exponencial combinat amb els resultats experimentals, es utilitzat com a novetat en esta Tesi Doctoral per a estimar la longitud òptima de circuit en funció del tipus de cel·la, així com per a obtindre el disseny òptim teòric de les estructures antireflectants de circuits dissipatius llargs per a l'atenuació de la ressonància en ports. / González Escrivá, JA. (2017). ANÁLISIS DE LA EFECTIVIDAD DE LAS ESTRUCTURAS ANTIRREFLEJANTES EN LA ATENUACIÓN DE LA RESONANCIA EN PUERTOS [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/86183 / TESIS