Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

This thesis aims to quantify the human impact on the natural resource water at the landscape scale. The drivers in the federal state of Brandenburg (Germany), the area under investigation, are land-use changes induced by policy decisions at European and federal state level. The water resources of the federal state are particularly sensitive to changes in land-use due to low precipitation rates in the summer combined with sandy soils and high evapotranspiration rates. Key elements in landscape hydrology are forests because of their unique capacity to transport water from the soil to the atmosphere. Given these circumstances, decisions made at any level of administration that may have effects on the forest sector in the state are critical in relation to the water cycle. It is therefore essential to evaluate any decision that may change forest area and structure in such a sensitive region. Thus, as a first step, it was necessary to develop and implement a model able to simulate possible interactions and feedbacks between forested surfaces and the hydrological cycle at the landscape scale. The result is a model for simulating the hydrological properties of forest stands based on a robust computation of the temporal and spatial LAI (leaf area index) dynamics. The approach allows the simulation of all relevant hydrological processes with a low parameter demand. It includes the interception of precipitation and transpiration of forest stands with and without groundwater in the rooting zone. The model also considers phenology, biomass allocation, as well as mortality and simple management practices. It has been implemented as a module in the eco-hydrological model SWIM (Soil and Water Integrated Model). This model has been tested in two pre-studies to verify the applicability of its hydrological process description for the hydrological conditions typical for the state. The newly implemented forest module has been tested for Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and in parts for Common Oak (Quercus robur and Q. petraea) in Brandenburg. For Scots Pine the results demonstrate a good simulation of annual biomass increase and LAI in addition to the satisfactory simulation of litter production. A comparison of the simulated and measured data of the May sprout for Scots pine and leaf unfolding for Oak, as well as the evaluation against daily transpiration measurements for Scots Pine, does support the applicability of the approach. The interception of precipitation has also been simulated and compared with weekly observed data for a Scots Pine stand which displays satisfactory results in both the vegetation periods and annual sums. After the development and testing phase, the model is used to analyse the effects of two scenarios. The first scenario is an increase in forest area on abandoned agricultural land that is triggered by a decrease in European agricultural production support. The second one is a shift in species composition from predominant Scots Pine to Common Oak that is based on decisions of the regional forestry authority to support a more natural species composition. The scenario effects are modelled for the federal state of Brandenburg on a 50m grid utilising spatially explicit land-use patterns. The results, for the first scenario, suggest a negative impact of an increase in forest area (9.4% total state area) on the regional water balance, causing an increase in mean long-term annual evapotranspiration of 3.7% at 100% afforestation when compared to no afforestation. The relatively small annual change conceals a much more pronounced seasonal effect of a mean long-term evapotranspiration increase by 25.1% in the spring causing a pronounced reduction in groundwater recharge and runoff. The reduction causes a lag effect that aggravates the scarcity of water resources in the summer. In contrast, in the second scenario, a change in species composition in existing forests (29.2% total state area) from predominantly Scots Pine to Common Oak decreases the long-term annual mean evapotranspiration by 3.4%, accompanied by a much weaker, but apparent, seasonal pattern. Both scenarios exhibit a high spatial heterogeneity because of the distinct natural conditions in the different regions of the state. Areas with groundwater levels near the surface are particularly sensitive to changes in forest area and regions with relatively high proportion of forest respond strongly to the change in species composition. In both cases this regional response is masked by a smaller linear mean effect for the total state area. Two critical sources of uncertainty in the model results have been investigated. The first one originates from the model calibration parameters estimated in the pre-study for lowland regions, such as the federal state. The combined effect of the parameters, when changed within their physical meaningful limits, unveils an overestimation of the mean water balance by 1.6%. However, the distribution has a wide spread with 14.7% for the 90th percentile and -9.9% for the 10th percentile. The second source of uncertainty emerges from the parameterisation of the forest module. The analysis exhibits a standard deviation of 0.6 % over a ten year period in the mean of the simulated evapotranspiration as a result of variance in the key forest parameters. The analysis suggests that the combined uncertainty in the model results is dominated by the uncertainties of calibration parameters. Therefore, the effect of the first scenario might be underestimated because the calculated increase in evapotranspiration is too small. This may lead to an overestimation of the water balance towards runoff and groundwater recharge. The opposite can be assumed for the second scenario in which the decrease in evapotranspiration might be overestimated. / Das übergreifende Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, die Interaktion zwischen Landnutzungsänderung und dem Landschaftswasserhaushalt zu quantifizieren. Das Untersuchungsgebiet für die Analyse ist das Land Brandenburg. Bedingt durch seine Kombination geringer Sommerniederschläge mit der Dominanz sandiger Böden und hoher Verdunstungsraten, insbesondere von den großflächigen Wäldern und Forsten, ist es besonders empfindlich gegenüber Landnutzungsänderung. Waldflächen sind Schlüsselelemente im Landschaftswasserhaushalt, da sie den Bodenwasserspeicher effizienter mit der Atmosphäre koppeln als die meisten anderen Vegetationsformen. Im ersten Teil der Arbeit war es daher notwendig, ein geeignetes Modellkonzept zu finden. Der Ansatz sollte in der Lage sein, die hydrologischen Effekte auf Landschaftsebene zu modellieren, ohne dabei die Datenverfügbarkeit in diesem Anwendungsbereich zu überschreiten. Das entwickelte Modellkonzept wurde in das ökohydrologische Einzugsgebietsmodell SWIM (Soil Water Integrated Model) integriert. Nach einer Test- und Entwicklungsphase konnte das Modell für die integrierte Analyse der Wirkung von zwei Szenarien auf den Landeswasserhaushalt verwendet werden. Das erste Szenario beschäftigt sich mit der möglichen Zunahme der Waldfläche als Folge der Neuausrichtung der Agrarsubventionspolitik der Europäischen Union. Die Waldflächenzunahme führt zu einer Steigerung der Evapotranspiration im langjährigen Mittel. Das zweite Szenario behandelt die Auswirkung des Brandenburger Waldumbauprogramms und hat eine vergleichsweise geringe Abnahme der langjährigen mittleren Verdunstung zur Folge. Der lineare mittlere Verlauf überdeckt ein ausgeprägtes räumliches und saisonales Muster der Veränderung. Die Zonen starker Effekte der beider Szenarien überlappen sich nur in einigen Fällen, so ist es möglich, dass die positiven Wirkungen des Waldumbauprogramms in einigen Regionen durch eine mögliche Ausweitung der Waldfläche aufgehoben werden. Die vorgestellten Ergebnisse zeigen deutlich, dass Landnutzungsänderungen, die durch politische oder administrative Entscheidungen ausgelöst werden, Auswirkungen auf elementare Landschaftsfunktionen wie den Wasserhaushalt haben. Es wird deutlich, dass ein integrativer Modellierungsansatz, der die wahrscheinlichen Wirkungen administrativer Entscheidungen in Betracht zieht, Grundlagen für eine nachhaltige Entwicklung liefern kann. Diese Ergebnisse werden umso relevanter, je stärker die betroffene Ressource bereits eingeschränkt ist. In Bezug auf die Wasserressourcen im Land Brandenburg ist das der Fall und aktuelle Studien zum Globalen Wandel in der Region prognostizieren eine Verschärfung dieser Situation.

Copepod species are distributed throughout the ocean by many factors, including chemical, biological, and physical effects. Turbulence in the ocean has been suggested as a factor that vertically partitions some species of copepod. Copepods may seek calmer waters by sinking to deeper levels as the surface waters become more turbulent, or may maintain their position in turbulent waters. The goal of this study is to determine the behavioral effects of turbulence on three species of copepod, Calanus finmarchicus, Acartia tonsa, and Temora longicornis. Experiments consisted of exposing each of the species to stagnant water plus four levels of turbulence intensity. The experiments were conducted in a laboratory apparatus that mimics oceanic turbulence. The turbulence characteristics have been previously characterized by particle image velocimetry (PIV), that show the turbulence to be nearly isotropic and homogeneous in the observation region. Behavior responses were quantified via several measures, including the number of animals phototactically aggregating per minute, the number of escape events, the swimming speed, and the net-to-gross-displacement ratio. There are important conclusions about the effect of laboratory turbulence on copepods. The size of the copepod has a significant effect on its aggregation and swimming capability with increasing turbulence. The smaller copepods had less ability to overcome a strong flow field, and they were more likely to be advected by the stronger flow fields. Swim style also can influence how a copepod reacts to increased turbulence. If the copepod is a hop and sink traveler, then the copepod continues to hop and sink more than its cruising counterparts as turbulence increases. The cruise and sink travelers did not alter the number of escapes in response to turbulence.

In many rivers, dams have interrupted the connectivity of migration routes for fish. While fishways can provide access between downstream and upstream habitats, it is important that passage can occur with minimal delay, energy expenditure, and physiological stress. The research presented here is based on investigations into fishway attraction and passage for the Gates Creek sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka, Walbaum) stock at the Seton River dam in British Columbia. The first part of this thesis examined the effect of changes in water discharge from the dam on the relationship between the physiological condition of sockeye and their behaviour in approaching the fishway entrance. Fish were caught and non-lethally biopsied under three normal operating discharge conditions at Seton River dam, and subsets of sampled fish were implanted with radio transmitters and released downstream of the dam. Indices of physiological stress and exhaustive exercise (e.g. plasma cortisol, glucose, lactate, osmolality and hematocrit) did not differ among the water discharge levels that were examined. Fish delayed in the tailrace below the fishway entrance significantly longer under intermediate discharge (19.9 h @ 12.7 m³s‾¹) than either the high discharge (9.3 h @ 15.8 m³s‾¹), or the low discharge (7.0 h @11.0 m³s‾¹;) conditions (P = 0.022, and P = 0.015, respectively). Delay time was similar under high and low discharge conditions (P = 0.617), and passage success was found to be independent of discharge (P = 0.356). The second part of this thesis investigated how prior physiological condition and subsequent swimming energetics and behaviours effected fishway passage success. Fish were captured and biopsied, before being implanted with electromyogram (EMG) transmitters and released near the downstream entrance of the fishway. Very few differences existed between successful and unsuccessful fish in body size, initial plasma physiology and energy state, and mean swim speed and energy use during passage. However, plasma Na+ concentration was significantly lower in unsuccessful fish (P = 0.022), which is suggestive of a depressed ionic state for unsuccessful fish. Generally, fish did not employ burst swimming during successful or failed attempts at passage, indicating that failure was probably not related to metabolic acidosis.

Sildenafil, a selective phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitor, is registered for the treatment of male erectile dysfunction (Viagra®) and pulmonary hypertension (Revatio®) in the United States. PDE5 is found in the endothelium of blood vessels in the penile corpus cavernosum, pulmonary vessels and also brain and other peripheral tissue. Sildenafil crosses the blood brain barrier, leading to side-effects such as headache and dizziness, as well as behavioural manifestations including depression, anxiety and aggression (Milman & Arnold, 2002). According to the Food and Drug Administration (2001), 12378 adverse events were reported after the use of sildenafil and 274 of these reports implicated sildenafil in neurologic, emotional, or psychological disturbances between January 1998 and 21 February 2001. In addition, in vivo studies in rats indicate that sildenafil has anxiogenic and stressogenic actions (Harvey et al., 2005; Volke et al., 2003). This is a clear indication that sildenafil influences neurological processes in the brain and may influence various signalling systems, which play major roles in the neural circuitry of the above-mentioned disturbances. Recent in vitro studies in our laboratory suggest that sildenafil may potentiate cholinergic muscarinic receptor signalling (Eager, 2004). These results suggest potential depressogenic actions, since an increase in acetylcholine is associated with depression-like symptoms (El- Yousef et al., 1973). It was therefore postulated that sildenafil may in fact possess antidepressant activity that is masked by a cholinergic-driven depressogenic activity. In a study conducted by Muller and Benkert in 2000, patients reported a decrease in depression-like symptoms when treated with sildenafil for erectile dysfunction. This implied that sildenafil not only had a direct effect on erectile function in about 50-80% of men with erectile dysfunction (Langtry and Markham, 1999; Padma-Nathan, 1999) but might also improve anhedonia and depression. The substantial correlation between the International Index of Erectile Function and Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale scores supported this assumption (Muller & Benkert, 2000). In addition, Raffaele et al. (2002) reported an indirect improvement in depressive-like symptoms in patients treated for erectile dysfunction with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Aims: The current study investigated the behavioural and neuroreceptor properties of sildenafil in a rat model of depression. We also investigated a hypothesis that sildenafil displays antidepressant-like properties, but which are masked by its potentiation of the cholinergic system. Methods: The experimental layout was divided into three pilot studies. Pilot Study 1 validated the FST under our laboratory conditions, Sprague-Dawley rats received saline intraperitoneally (i.p.) for 7 days, whereafter half of the rats were pre-exposed to a 15 minute swim trial, while the remaining rats were not pre-exposed. All rats were then evaluated 24 hours later in the 5 minute scored swim trial. In Pilot Study 2 Sprague-Dawley rats were treated for 3, 7 or 11 days with vehicle (control) or 20 mg/kg fluoxetine to establish the time-dependency of the onset of antidepressant-like effects in a rat model of depression. We measured immobility in the rat forced swim test (FST), as well as changes in P-adrenergic receptor (P-AR) concentration in rat frontal cortex. In pilot study 3, rats were treated for 7 days with vehicle (control), 20 mg/kg fluoxetine, 10 mg/kg sildenafil, 1 mg/kg atropine or various combinations of these drugs. Again we employed the FST and measured cortical p-AR concentration. Results: In the FST pre-exposure to a 15 minute swim trial 24 hours before the scored swim trial significantly increased immobility. Fluoxetine inhibited this development of increased immobility in FST and decreased P-AR concentration after 7 and 11 days of treatment with fluoxetine, but not after 3 days. Seven days of treatment with atropine and sildenafil alone did not exert any changes in immobility in the FST or changes in p-AR concentration. However, a combination of atropine and sildenafil exerted a significant antidepressant-like behavioural effect, comparable with fluoxetine. Moreover, the combination of atropine and fluoxetine as well as the a triple combination of fluoxetine, sildenafil and atropine was superior to fluoxetine alone. Conclusion: Muscarinic cholinergic mechanisms mask the antidepressant-like properties of sildenafil in a rat model of depression. The antidepressant properties of the combination of sildenafil and atropine are comparable to that of fluoxetine in an animal model of depression. The combination of fluoxetine with atropine, and atropine and sildenafil enhances the antidepressant-like properties of fluoxetine. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

Sildenafil, a selective phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitor, is registered for the treatment of male erectile dysfunction (Viagra®) and pulmonary hypertension (Revatio®) in the United States. PDE5 is found in the endothelium of blood vessels in the penile corpus cavernosum, pulmonary vessels and also brain and other peripheral tissue. Sildenafil crosses the blood brain barrier, leading to side-effects such as headache and dizziness, as well as behavioural manifestations including depression, anxiety and aggression (Milman & Arnold, 2002). According to the Food and Drug Administration (2001), 12378 adverse events were reported after the use of sildenafil and 274 of these reports implicated sildenafil in neurologic, emotional, or psychological disturbances between January 1998 and 21 February 2001. In addition, in vivo studies in rats indicate that sildenafil has anxiogenic and stressogenic actions (Harvey et al., 2005; Volke et al., 2003). This is a clear indication that sildenafil influences neurological processes in the brain and may influence various signalling systems, which play major roles in the neural circuitry of the above-mentioned disturbances. Recent in vitro studies in our laboratory suggest that sildenafil may potentiate cholinergic muscarinic receptor signalling (Eager, 2004). These results suggest potential depressogenic actions, since an increase in acetylcholine is associated with depression-like symptoms (El- Yousef et al., 1973). It was therefore postulated that sildenafil may in fact possess antidepressant activity that is masked by a cholinergic-driven depressogenic activity. In a study conducted by Muller and Benkert in 2000, patients reported a decrease in depression-like symptoms when treated with sildenafil for erectile dysfunction. This implied that sildenafil not only had a direct effect on erectile function in about 50-80% of men with erectile dysfunction (Langtry and Markham, 1999; Padma-Nathan, 1999) but might also improve anhedonia and depression. The substantial correlation between the International Index of Erectile Function and Epidemiologic Studies-Depression Scale scores supported this assumption (Muller & Benkert, 2000). In addition, Raffaele et al. (2002) reported an indirect improvement in depressive-like symptoms in patients treated for erectile dysfunction with idiopathic Parkinson's disease. Aims: The current study investigated the behavioural and neuroreceptor properties of sildenafil in a rat model of depression. We also investigated a hypothesis that sildenafil displays antidepressant-like properties, but which are masked by its potentiation of the cholinergic system. Methods: The experimental layout was divided into three pilot studies. Pilot Study 1 validated the FST under our laboratory conditions, Sprague-Dawley rats received saline intraperitoneally (i.p.) for 7 days, whereafter half of the rats were pre-exposed to a 15 minute swim trial, while the remaining rats were not pre-exposed. All rats were then evaluated 24 hours later in the 5 minute scored swim trial. In Pilot Study 2 Sprague-Dawley rats were treated for 3, 7 or 11 days with vehicle (control) or 20 mg/kg fluoxetine to establish the time-dependency of the onset of antidepressant-like effects in a rat model of depression. We measured immobility in the rat forced swim test (FST), as well as changes in P-adrenergic receptor (P-AR) concentration in rat frontal cortex. In pilot study 3, rats were treated for 7 days with vehicle (control), 20 mg/kg fluoxetine, 10 mg/kg sildenafil, 1 mg/kg atropine or various combinations of these drugs. Again we employed the FST and measured cortical p-AR concentration. Results: In the FST pre-exposure to a 15 minute swim trial 24 hours before the scored swim trial significantly increased immobility. Fluoxetine inhibited this development of increased immobility in FST and decreased P-AR concentration after 7 and 11 days of treatment with fluoxetine, but not after 3 days. Seven days of treatment with atropine and sildenafil alone did not exert any changes in immobility in the FST or changes in p-AR concentration. However, a combination of atropine and sildenafil exerted a significant antidepressant-like behavioural effect, comparable with fluoxetine. Moreover, the combination of atropine and fluoxetine as well as the a triple combination of fluoxetine, sildenafil and atropine was superior to fluoxetine alone. Conclusion: Muscarinic cholinergic mechanisms mask the antidepressant-like properties of sildenafil in a rat model of depression. The antidepressant properties of the combination of sildenafil and atropine are comparable to that of fluoxetine in an animal model of depression. The combination of fluoxetine with atropine, and atropine and sildenafil enhances the antidepressant-like properties of fluoxetine. / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharmacology))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2007.

In many rivers, dams have interrupted the connectivity of migration routes for fish. While fishways can provide access between downstream and upstream habitats, it is important that passage can occur with minimal delay, energy expenditure, and physiological stress. The research presented here is based on investigations into fishway attraction and passage for the Gates Creek sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka, Walbaum) stock at the Seton River dam in British Columbia. The first part of this thesis examined the effect of changes in water discharge from the dam on the relationship between the physiological condition of sockeye and their behaviour in approaching the fishway entrance. Fish were caught and non-lethally biopsied under three normal operating discharge conditions at Seton River dam, and subsets of sampled fish were implanted with radio transmitters and released downstream of the dam. Indices of physiological stress and exhaustive exercise (e.g. plasma cortisol, glucose, lactate, osmolality and hematocrit) did not differ among the water discharge levels that were examined. Fish delayed in the tailrace below the fishway entrance significantly longer under intermediate discharge (19.9 h @ 12.7 m³s‾¹) than either the high discharge (9.3 h @ 15.8 m³s‾¹), or the low discharge (7.0 h @11.0 m³s‾¹;) conditions (P = 0.022, and P = 0.015, respectively). Delay time was similar under high and low discharge conditions (P = 0.617), and passage success was found to be independent of discharge (P = 0.356). The second part of this thesis investigated how prior physiological condition and subsequent swimming energetics and behaviours effected fishway passage success. Fish were captured and biopsied, before being implanted with electromyogram (EMG) transmitters and released near the downstream entrance of the fishway. Very few differences existed between successful and unsuccessful fish in body size, initial plasma physiology and energy state, and mean swim speed and energy use during passage. However, plasma Na+ concentration was significantly lower in unsuccessful fish (P = 0.022), which is suggestive of a depressed ionic state for unsuccessful fish. Generally, fish did not employ burst swimming during successful or failed attempts at passage, indicating that failure was probably not related to metabolic acidosis.

Submitted by GABRIEL MOTTA PINHEIRO BRISOLA null (gabriel-brisola@hotmail.com) on 2016-11-18T17:48:43Z No. of bitstreams: 1 DISSERTAÇÃO ÚLTIMA VERSÃO.pdf: 3813641 bytes, checksum: c61ebbd4c02dd51b7b1ae87320fcf1d5 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Felipe Augusto Arakaki (arakaki@reitoria.unesp.br) on 2016-11-24T15:09:44Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 brisola_gmp_me_rcla.pdf: 3813641 bytes, checksum: c61ebbd4c02dd51b7b1ae87320fcf1d5 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-11-24T15:09:44Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 brisola_gmp_me_rcla.pdf: 3813641 bytes, checksum: c61ebbd4c02dd51b7b1ae87320fcf1d5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-09-29 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / O objetivo geral do presente trabalho foi verificar o potencial ergogênico da suplementação por 4 semanas de β-alanina sobre a potência anaeróbia, habilidade de esforços repetidos e desempenho no polo aquático. 22 jogadores de elite do sexo masculino (média±dp: idade = 18±4 anos, peso = 78,5±9,5 kg e altura = 1,79±0,06 m) participaram do estudo, que foi conduzido de modo randomizado, duplo cego e placebo controlado. Os participantes foram divididos em dois grupos (β-alanina e placebo) de 11 atletas cada e foram submetidos a testes específicos (teste de habilidade de esforços repetidos (RSA) e teste máximo de 30s de salto sob o gol (30CJ)) e semi-específicos (teste de 30s máximo em nado atado (30ATADO), teste máximo de 3 minutos (All Out 3min), teste incremental máximo (GXTATADO) e performance de 200m em nado crawl (P200m)) para a modalidade e um jogo simulado para possibilitar o rastreamento das atividades realizadas por meio de filmagem. As avaliações ocorreram pré e após o período de suplementação (4 semanas). Não foram encontrados efeitos significativos de interação entre os grupos para nenhuma variável do presente estudo. No entanto, alguns ligeiros indícios de melhora com a suplementação de β-alanina foram encontrados como: (1) melhora significativa entre os momentos (pré × pós) no número total de sprints durante o jogo simulado de polo aquático; (2) efeito provavelmente benéfico (análise de inferência baseada na magnitude) para o tempo médio, pior tempo e tempo total na primeira série do teste de RSA (RSA1); (3) melhora significativa entre os momentos na força média e integral de força durante o teste 30ATADO e na P200m; (4) melhora significativa entre os momentos na força pico no teste GXTATADO. Portanto, conclui-se que a suplementação por 4 semanas de β-alanina pode promover apenas melhorar ligeiramente alguns parâmetros relacionados a habilidade de nado no polo aquático como número total de sprints em jogo simulado, tempo médio, pior tempo e tempo total no teste de RSA, força média e integral de força no 30ATADO, P200m e força crítica no GXTATADO. / The overall aim of this study was to investigate the ergogenic effect of 4 weeks β-alanine supplementation on the anaerobic power, ability to performed repeated efforts and performance of water polo. 22 male elite players (mean±SD age = 18±4 years, weight = 78.5±9.5 kg and height = 1.79±0.06 m) participated in the study, which was conducted in order randomized, double blind and placebo controlled. Participants were divided into two groups (β-alanine and placebo) of 11 athletes each and were subjected to specific tests (repeated sprint ability test (RSA) and maximum 30s jump under the goal test (30CJ)) and semi-specific (30s maximal test in tethered swimming (30TS), maximal 3 min effort (AllOut-3min), tethered swimming graded exercise test (GXTTS) and 200m in front crawl (P200m)) for the modality and a simulated game to enable tracking of the activities carried out by video record. Assessments occurred before and after the supplementation period (4 weeks). There were no significant interaction effects between the groups for any variable of this study. However, some slight improvement indications with β-alanine supplementation were found to: (1) significant improvement between moments (pre × post) the total number of sprints during the simulated game water polo; (2) probably beneficial effect (magnitude-based inference analysis) for the mean time, worst time and total time in the first series of the RSA test (RSA1); (3) significant improvement between moments for mean force and integral of force during the 30TS and P200m; (4) significant improvement between moments for peak power at GXTTS. Therefore, it is concluded that supplementation for 4 weeks of β-alanine can promote only slightly improve some parameters related to swimming ability in water polo as total number of sprints in simulated game, mean time, worst time and total time on test RSA, mean and integral of force in 30TS, P200m and critical force in GXTTS. / FAPESP: 2014/02186-7

Orientador: Benedito Sérgio Denadai / Banca: Cassiano Merussi Neiva / Banca: Fabrizio Caputo / Banca: Emerson Franchin / Banca: Mauro Gonçalves / Resumo: Não se tem observado a preocupação com a descrição dos domínios de intensidade na natação e poucas tentativas foram realizadas para ajustar o modelo de P-tLim às condições desta modalidade de exercício. Este estudo pretendeu ajustar o modelo P-tLim à natação com o recurso do controle de cargas possibilitado pelo nado em condição atada. Assim como, seu significado fisiológico para a descrição dos domínios pesado/severo obtido pelas relações a serem estabelecidas com a velocidade crítica (VC - limite superior do domínio pesado), com a máxima fase estável do lactato (MFEL, que disputa com VC a indexação do limite superior do domínio pesado) e com a caracterização dos domínios pesado e severo pelos parâmetros de cinética e amplitude do VO2. Em um primeiro estudo, 24 nadadores (16,5 ± 2,7 anos e 67,7 ± 13,5 kg) submeteram-se à estimativa da força de arrasto (Fr = A  v2). A Fr encontrada em máxima velocidade foi fracionada para compor quatro estágios de teste, com tempos de exaustão entre 3-20 min. em crawl-atado. A VC foi estimada empregando quatro distâncias entre 200-1500m. A potência crítica atada (PCAtada) linear (81,9W) e não linear (71,1W) não se diferenciaram (  0,05) dos valores de PC linear (108,2W) e não linear (96,3W) estimados por VC linear (1,2m.s-1) e não linear (1,14m.s-1), através da equação do desempenho. Neste primeiro estudo, pode-se concluir que PCAtada é correlata a VC, podendo representar a capacidade aeróbia. No segundo estudo, dez nadadores (16,6  1,4 anos e 69,8  9,5 kg) foram submetidos às estimativas de PCAtado (equações lineares e hiperbólica de 2-parâmetros), VC (ajuste linear do tempo pela velocidade nos desempenhos de 200, 400 e 800m), PAtadaMFEL (3 ou 4 esforços entre 95 a 105% da carga em PCAtada hiperbólica) e à vMFEL (3 ou 4 esforços entre 85 a 95% do velocidade máxima do crawl nos 400m)... (Resumo completo, clicar acesso eletrônico abaixo) / Abstract: There is a lack of studies describing the domains of intensity in swimming, and few works approaches the P-tLim model in swimming. This study provided a way to assess the P-tLim model in swimming, applying the load controlled environment in full-tethered condition. The physiological meaning for the description of heavy and severe domains was established from the relationships of critical velocity (CV - upper boundary of heavy domain) to maximal lactate steady state (MLSS, conflicting with VC to demarcate the upper boundary of heavy domain), and from the descriptive characterization of kinetic and amplitude parameters of VO2. In he first study, 24 swimmers with 16.5 ± 2.7 years and 67.7 ± 13.5 kg were undertaken to drag force (Fr) estimation (Fr = A  v2). The Fr at maximal crawl velocity was the load that was fractioned to build the sets, lasting 3-20min until exhaustion. CV was calculated from distance between 200-1500m. The linear (81.9W) and non-linear (71.1W) PTethCrit were not different (  0.05) from the values of linear (108.2W) and non-linear (96.3W) PC estimative obtained from linear (1.2m.s-1) and non-linear (1.14m.s-1) CV through swim performance equation. It was conclude that PCTeth was related to CV, and reliable to indexes aerobic capacity. The second work, did analyze ten male swimmers (16.6  1.4 years and 69.8  9.5kg) that were submitted to the measurements of the CPTeth (linear and non-linear two parameters equation), CV (linear adjustment between time and velocity performance in the 200, 400 and 800m), PTethMLSS (3 or 4 trials ranging from 95 to 105% of the load at non-linear PCAtada), and vMLSS (3 or 4 trials ranging from 85 to 95% of the 400-m crawl performance). The results shown that neither CV (1.19  0.12m.s-1) nor the CPTeth (99.4  23.0W) matches the statements for MLSS, once differences were observed to the vMLSS (1.17  0.11m.s-1)... (Complete abstract click electronic access below) / Doutor

O esporte aquático em todas as modalidades requer combinação de força e eficiência, pois a água tem densidade maior que o ar, e o nadador de elite que tem jornada aquática intensa com movimentos repetitivos na locomoção e respiração pode apresentar modificação de função e forma das estruturas que compõem o organismo humano. Esta pesquisa avaliou a força de mordida molar máxima, atividade eletromiográfica, eficiência mastigatória e espessura dos músculos masseter e temporal de nadadores de elite que utilizaram variações de métodos respiratórios do nado crawl para o lado direito e esquerdo, e comparou os resultados com indivíduos sedentários. Participaram 18 indivíduos na faixa etária entre 15 e 25 anos que foram distribuídos em três grupos: sedentários/controles (GC; idade média: 15,00 ± 0,98 anos; n=6); atletas que realizaram respiração para o lado esquerdo no nado crawl (GE; idade média 17,00 ± 2,44 anos; n=6) e atletas que realizaram respiração para o lado direito no nado crawl (GD; idade média 21,00 ± 2,44 anos; n=6). O dinamômetro digital Kratos foi utilizado para determinar a força de mordida molar máxima. O eletromiógrafo MyoSystem BR1 foi utilizado para avaliar a atividade eletromiográfica em repouso mandibular, lateralidade direita, lateralidade esquerda, protrusão, apertamento dental em contração voluntária máxima, mastigação habitual e não habitual (eficiência mastigatória). Foi utilizado o ultrassom Sono Site Titan para mensurar a espessura muscular em repouso e apertamento dental em contração voluntária máxima. Os dados obtidos foram tabulados e submetidos à análise estatística (SPSS 21.0, ANOVA; p ≤ 0,05). GE e GD demonstraram menor atividade eletromiográfica nas condições posturais da mandíbula quando comparados a GC. Foi observado correto padrão funcional nos movimentos mandibulares nas diferentes avaliações clínicas, com diferença significante na lateralidade direita para o músculo temporal esquerdo (p=0,04). GD e GE apresentaram maior eficiência mastigatória em relação ao GC, com diferença significante para o músculo temporal esquerdo na mastigação com uva passa (p=0,004). Não ocorreram diferenças significantes nas médias da espessura muscular e força de mordida molar entre os nadadores de elite e indivíduos sedentários. Estes resultados sugerem que nadadores de elite que utilizaram o nado crawl com métodos respiratórios variados apresentaram alterações funcionais nos músculos masseter e temporal. / All modalities of water sports require a combination of strength and efficiency, as the water has a higher density than air, and the elites swimmer has an intense aquatic journey with repetitive movements in the locomotion and breathing may present a modification of the function and shape of the body structures. This study evaluated the molar bite force, electromyographic activity, masticatory efficiency and thickness of the masseter and temporal muscle of elites swimmers used changes in respiratory methods both in right and left for crawl modality and compared the results with sedentary individuals. 18 individuals, aged between 15 and 25 years, were divided into three groups: sedentary/control (average ± SD 15.00 ± 0.98 years, n = 6; CG), athletes underwent respiration to the left side in the crawl swim (average ± SD 17.00 ± 2.44 years, n = 6; LG) and athletes who underwent respiration to the right side in the crawl swim (average ± SD 21.00 ± 2.44 years, n = 6, RG). The Kratos digital dynamometer was used to determine the molar bite force. The MyoSystem BR1 electromyograph was used to evaluate the electromyographic activity at mandibular rest, right laterality, left laterality, protrusion, maximum voluntary contraction, habitual and non-habitual mastication (masticatory efficiency). Sono Site Titan ultrasound was used to measure muscle thickness at rest and dental tightening at maximum voluntary contraction. The data were tabulated and submitted to statistical analysis (SPSS 21.0, ANOVA; P ≤ 0.05). LG and RG demonstrated lower electromyographic activity in postural conditions of the mandible when compared to CG. The correct mandibular neuroanatomic movement was observed in almost all muscles, with a significant difference in right laterality for the left temporal muscle (P=0.04). RG and LG presented greater masticatory efficiency in relation to the CG, with a significant difference for the left temporal muscle in chewing with raisins (P=0.004). There were no significant differences in the average muscle thickness and molar bite force between elite swimmers and sedentary individuals. These results suggest that elites swimmers perform crawl swimming with varied respiratory methods had functional alterations in the masseter and temporal muscles.