Introdução. Devido ao aumento do consumo de peixe cru, observado especialmente na culinária japonesa, e ao fato dos peixes poderem carrear microrganismos capazes de produzir doença de origem alimentar, este trabalho foi delineado. Objetivos. Avaliar as condições sanitárias dos locais de coleta e a qualidade higiênico-sanitária de peixes vendidos em Mercados Municipais da cidade de São Paulo com o propósito de serem consumidos crus, e comparar os dados com a legislação vigente. Métodos. Observação dos locais de coleta, através de 10 itens pré-determinados. Contagem microbiológica de coliforme termotolerantes, Staphylococcus aureus, presença de Escherichia coli, Salmonella em 25g e Vibrio sp, de acordo com a APHA em 20 amostras de peixes. Resultados. A Pontuação obtida variou entre 2 e 8 pontos, representando o atendimento dos 10 itens selecionados. Das 20 amostras, 2 (10%) tinham coliformes termotolerantes e 1 (5%) S. aureus acima do limite estabelecido. Três amostras apresentaram cepas características na série bioquímica e sorologia positiva, para Salmonella spp, porém após triagem pela PCR nenhuma foi considerada positiva. E. coli foi obtida em 2 amostras. A presença de Vibrio sp potencialmente patogênicas (V. metschnikovii e V. Fluvialis) foi obtida em 3 amostras de peixe. Conclusão. Apesar da boa infra-estrutura na maioria das peixarias observadas, foi possível identificar a deficiência na adoção das boas práticas de manipulação. Os métodos tradicionais de identificação de Salmonella spp, podem fornecer resultados falso-positivos. A existência de espécies de Vibrio potencialmente patogênicas, que não são contempladas pela legislação vigente, pode representar um perigo à saúde pública. / Introduction. Due to the increase consumption of raw fish, observed mainly in the Japanese culinary, and the fact of the fish can carry a number of microorganism capable of producing food borne disease, this research was delineated. Objective. To evaluate the sanitary conditions of collection sites and the sanitary quality of fishes sold in the Municipal Market in São Paulo city with the purpose to be consumed raw and compare the data with the current legislation. Methods. Observation of the environment through 10 predetermined items. Microbiological enumeration of thermo-tolerant coliform bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus, presence of Escherichia coli, Salmonella in 25g and Vibrio sp, according to APHA in 20 fish samples. Results. Punctuation obtained varied from 2 to 8 points representing attendance to the 10 selected items. From the 20 samples, 2 (10%) presented thermo-tolerant coliform and 1 (5%) S. aureus above the established limits. Three samples presented strain characteristic in the biochemical test and positive serum, for Salmonella sp, however after the selection for the PCR none was considered positive. E. coli was obtained from two samples. The presence of potentially pathogenic Vibrio sp (V. fluvialis and V. Metschnikovii) was observed in 3 fish samples. Conclusion. Despite the good infrastructure in the majority of fish shop observed, it was possible to identify a deficiency in the adoption of good manufacturing practices. The traditional methods of identification of Salmonella spp, can result in false-positives. The existence of potentially pathogenic Vibrio species, which are not contemplated by the current legislation, may represent a risk to the public health.

Currently the extraction of valuable components from oils is of growing interest. Palm fatty acid distillate is a by-product from palm oil refining process which contains valuable minor components. The scope of the present work was to investigate the enrichment of high value low concentration components of palm fatty acid distillate namely squalene (1.8-2.3 wt.% squalene) using supercritical carbon dioxide as solvent with counter-current packed column kept under isothermal and longitudinal thermal gradient. The overall objective of this work was to explore the effect of extraction process parameters such as pressure, temperature, and solvent to feed ratio to optimize the conditions that lead to high separation efficiency. This work has been centred on the study of the solubility of the main lipid components in supercritical carbon dioxide, isothermal counter-current extraction, longitudinal thermal gradient fractionation and the effect of feed concentration. Solubility studies have been conducted for binary, ternary and quaternary systems as function of state of conditions through the application of a dynamic method. Binary systems of CO2/squalene, CO2/oleic acid, CO2/\( \alpha \)-tocopherol, and CO2/pseudo-component palm olein were measured at temperatures of 313, 333 and 353 K, and at a pressure range of 10 to 30 MPa. A ternary system of CO2/squalene/palm olein and a quaternary system of CO2/squalene/ palm olein/ oleic acid were also investigated at 313 K and pressures of 10 to 25 MPa. Comparison of the ternary system with the binary system showed a decrease in the solubility of squalene, with a corresponding rise in the solubility of palm olein. In the quaternary system, the presence of oleic acid decreased the selectivity of squalene. Extraction of squalene has been carried out on a counter-current glass beads packed column with the dimensions of 11.45 mm internal diameter and 1.5 m of effective height. The pressure and temperature were the operating conditions investigated and they varied from 10 – 20 MPa and 313 – 353K, respectively. Experimentation has demonstrated that squalene high fraction is achievable, however, squalene recovery has been found to be highly dependent on the extraction pressure and temperature. Squalene and free fatty acids content in the extract increased, and triglycerides content decreased during most of the fractionation runs. Longitudinal thermal gradient profiles along the column were investigated for further recovery of squalene, results showed the highest squalene recovery of more than 95% was reached and concentration of squalene was increased from 2wt% in the feed to 16wt% in the top product.

Biogas is not ideal for combustion in diesel engines mainly due to its low energy content. The upgrading of biogas into high quality syngas through catalytic reforming reactions was investigated. Studies on the effect of temperature, space velocity and O\(_2\)/CH\(_4\) molar ratio on various basic biogas reforming processes were done. The dry reforming of biogas was found to be active at high reactor temperatures with syngas production and reduction of carbon dioxide. The promotion of simultaneous dry and oxidative reforming by adding oxygen improves syngas production at conditions of low temperature and high space velocity. Subsequently, the biogas exhaust fuel reforming process was done by feeding real engine exhaust together with biogas into the reforming reactor. Reforming process efficiency of 95% (ratio of energy content of reformate to biogas) was achieved at high space velocity and high content of steam in exhaust at medium engine load (300°C exhaust temperature). Further improvement was observed when reformed exhaust gas recirculation (REGR) was applied due to increased exhaust steam content in the engine – reactor system which promoted the endothermic steam reforming reaction. Moreover, improved engine thermal efficiency and lower emissions were found during reformate gas-diesel operation compared to biogas-diesel operation.

An innovative approach to translating probabilistic UKCP09 weather generator information into a usable and replicable risk-based climate change impacts assessment and a basis for robust adaptation planning in the England and Wales water sector is described. Applying metrics of risk in the form of crossing control curves at a reservoir, quantitative assessments of the extent to which a Water Resource Zone (WRZ) can be considered robust to climate change-induced water shortages given the application of adaptations options are made. It is shown in a case study of the North Staffordshire WRZ that in its current set-up, the system cannot be deemed robust to climate change from the 2030s onwards. Applying demand and supply-side adaptation options to the WRZ increases the robustness of the system to varying extents. The approach used shows that it is possible to make decisions on how the WRZ can be made robust to future conditions by identifying key metrics of risk, and applying an acceptable probability of not satisfying that risk in the future. Furthermore, a novel analysis of two sources of uncertainty involved in climate change assessments is produced in terms of water shortage probability for the first time, and two downscaling techniques are assessed.

The shortage in water resources have been observed all over the world. However, the safety of drinking water has been given much attention by scientists because the disinfection will react with organic matters in drinking water to generate disinfection by-products (DBPs) which are considered as the cancerigenic matters. Although much research has been carried out on the water quality control problem in DWDS, the water quality model considered is linear with only chlorine dynamics. Compared to the linear water quality model, the nonlinear water quality model considers the interaction between chlorine and DBPs dynamics. The thesis proposes a nonlinear model predictive controller which utilises the newly derived nonlinear water quality model as a control alternative for controlling water quality. EPANET and EPANET-MSN are simulators utilised for modelling in the developed nonlinear MPC controller. Uncertainty is not considered in these simulators. This thesis proposes the bounded PPM in a form of multi-input multi-output to robustly bound parameters of chlorine and DBPs jointly and to robustly predict water quality control outputs for quality control purpose. The methodologies and algorithms developed in this thesis are verified by applying extended case studies to the example DWDS. The simulation results are presented and critically analysed.

This research focused on evaluating the water savings that could be achieved from Trade Effluent Recycling and Reuse (TERR) in the UK Food and Beverage Manufacturing Sector (FBM) and on identifying the current and future factors that can impact on the success of this application in the UK. The research data suggest that the water regenerated from a widespread application of TERR in the FBM can potentially satisfy 44% of future increases in water demand. However, it was evident from the research findings that there is a need to clarify implementation strategies and validate the safety, reliability and economic feasibility of TERR projects before this application can be approved by the salient stakeholders in the FBM. Alternative future scenarios were also developed to evaluate the impact that changes in the environmental and socio-economic domains (ESE) are likely to have on TERR in the FBM. It was evident from the narratives that emerged from these scenarios that future changes in ESE are likely to have a positive impact on the approval of TERR projects. The findings also highlight the key role that TERR can potentially play in improving the resilience of the UK against future water shortages through providing a significant percentage of the projected future increases in water demand.

This thesis aims to apply recent conceptual frameworks for climate change impact assessment to the road freight sector of Great Britain in order to identify potential future safety issues. The freight sector is a key component of Great Britain’s economy, and one which is particularly vulnerable to the effects of adverse weather. An assessment of the current patterns in weather related freight accidents is produced, and existing studies on accident causation are elaborated upon to arrive at relationships between key meteorological parameters and freight accident rates. These relationships are extrapolated onto various climate scenarios under low, medium and high emissions for the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s using UKICP09 climate tools to arrive at projections of possible impacts at a regional scale. This thesis also addresses a key criticism of the previous climate change impact assessment literature; that studies usually neglect the consideration of what the network will look like in the future, how it will be used, and how this will impact upon its vulnerability to meteorology. The way in which the network is designed, the resilience of the vehicles that operate on it and the split of usage between the various modes will all affect the impacts that are likely to be seen, and are all determined by the broader socio-economic pathway of the country. Delphi techniques are used for short term forecasts of growth and to identify emerging issues with the industry. UKCIP data is used to extend these projections to 2050. By combining social and physical techniques, a more holistic picture of future impacts is found. Although the confluence of safer technology and a reduction of winter road icing and summer precipitation events could potentially lead to a safer operating environment, certain scenarios which promote high emissions, a larger freight fleet and low investment in infrastructure could cause problems, especially for winter precipitation events.

Establishing relationships between morphology and behaviour in response to environmental selection pressures are crucial to understand the evolution of diversity within groups such as the hominoids. Muscle architecture (fascicle length and physiological cross-sectional area) from the fore and hindlimbs in the non-human apes were compared, with the result that it did not differ substantially, likely reflecting their characteristic use of orthograde behaviours. At the micro-architecture level, significant differences in the proportions of fast and slow muscle fibres of the triceps surae were found between orangutans and chimpanzees, reflecting subtle differences in locomotion and habitat use. As the largest, predominantly arboreal ape, orangutans were expected to have specific behavioural adaptations to the complex arboreal habitat. A new method was developed, Sutton Movement Writing and was successfully applied to record the subtle variations in positional behaviour and compliant support use in orangutans under field conditions. Finally, postural specialisations used during feeding in the terminal branch niche were identified. Overall, this thesis shows that although the non-human apes appear to share overall behaviours and morphology, more subtle variations in micro-architecture and behaviour are present in orangutans in response to their habitat, and reflects key adaptations since their split from the last common-ape ancestor.

Estudos recentes constataram a existência de processos que permitem a atenuação natural dos contaminantes presentes nos lixiviados. O adequado entendimento destes processos pode originar benefícios possíveis de serem aplicados em aterros antigos, novos ou naqueles que ainda serão concebidos. O presente estudo avaliou o comportamento e a atenuação de contaminantes dos líxiviados no solo, por meio de experimento desenvolvido em colunas de percolação e, para a avaliação da atenuação este teste é indicado por refletir as condições naturais e as características adsortivas do solo, propiciando uma melhor simulação da atenuação. O lixiviado e o solo utilizados neste experimento são provenientes do aterro sanitário de São Carlos - SP. O solo utilizado foi caracterizado quanto à composição física, química, biológica e mineralógica para verificar o transporte do percolado nas colunas e a interação solo-contaminante. Na área do aterro foram feitas perfurações, ensaios de condutividade hidráulica e avaliação da geologia local, para conhecimento das características físicas, químicas, biológicas, mineralógicas e geológicas do solo in situ. Este foi classificado como arenoso, apresentando características físicas e químicas que não se enquadram nos parâmetros adequados para sua utilização em áreas de disposição de resíduos sólidos urbanos, pois, a capacidade de troca de cátions, superfície específica, potencial hidrogeniônico e classe textural arenosa, evidenciam que este solo possui deficiente capacidade de retenção e imobilização de contaminantes. Além disso, pela observação in situ, constata-se que a área de disposição de resíduos sólidos de São Carlos esta situado sobre rochas da Formação Botucatu, sendo que a mineralogia do solo presente no local é composta de quartzo, caulinita, goethita, hematita, gibsita e ilita. O ensaio de condutividade hidráulica indicou que o solo presente na base do Aterro sanitário não atende a valor de permeabilidade exigida por norma, o que poderá permitir a infiltração de água da chuva, aumentando a produção do lixiviado e sua movimentação no perfil, podendo atingir as águas subterrâneas. Assim, foram traçadas curvas características do transporte de contaminantes nas amostras efluentes monitoradas durante o processo de percolação, coletadas a cada 0,25 volume de poros até atingir 10,0 volume de poros percolados. As curvas características do transporte de contaminantes traçadas apresentaram baixas concentrações de Chumbo, Cádmio, Ferro, Zinco, Manganês, Cálcio, Magnésio, Cobre, Cromo nas amostras fluentes. Já o Sódio, Potássio, Cloro, Níquel e Alumínio foram preferencialmente percolados com o lixiviado, evidenciando a variação da faixa de concentração de cada elemento no percolado. Os perfis de concentração dos metais pesados mostraram que existe uma frente de contaminação. As curvas de retenção de metais no solo mostraram que a preferência de sorção apresentada pelos solos nas colunas foi : Cobre > Cádmio > Cálcio > Zinco > Magnésio > Potássio > Manganês > Fósforo > Ferro > Níquel > Alumínio. Cujos valores retidos no solo das colunas podem estar evidenciando a capacidade deste solo em reter contaminantes.O solo em questão apresentou baixo potencial para retenção dos contaminantes presentes no lixiviado, classificado como arenoso e, com características químicas que não se enquadram nos parâmetros adequados para sua utilização em áreas de disposição de resíduos sólidos urbanos. / Recent studies had found the existence of processes that allow a natural attenuation of the leachates\'s cotaminants. An adequate understanding of these processes may originate benefits, that may be applied in ancient, new or to be created landfills. This work evaluated the contaminant\'s behavior and attenuation, contaminants existing in soil\'s leaching, throughout an experiment developed in percolation columns. This is the indicated examination for evaluate the attenuation, because it reflects soil\'s natural conditions and adsorptive characteristics, providing a better simulation of it\'s attenuation. The leachate and the soil used in this experiment came from Sao Carlos-SP landfill. The used soil has been characterized as its mineralogical\'s and physical chemical-biological\'s composition, looking for the percolated\'s transportation inside the columns, and for the interaction soil-contaminant. The landfill\'s area has been several times drilled, tested as it\'s hydraulic conductivity and assessment of local geology, in order to know the physical, chemical, biological, mineralogical and geological in situ soil\'s characteristics. This, has been classified as sandy, and, by presenting chemical characteristics that does not reach the adequated value for utilization on solid urban wastes, due to the values of CTC, SE, pH, and the textural sandy class, what shows a deficient buffering capacity in retaining and immobilisating contaminants. By observation in situ, has been found that Sao Carlos\'s solids disposal waste is located over rocks from the Botucatu formation, and the mineralogy of it is composed of quartz, caulinith, goethith, hematith, gibsith an ilith. The hydraulic conductivity test has indicated that the soil in the base of the sanitary landfill does not reaches the permeability values required by the standards, what may allow rain water\'s infiltration, and raises the amount of leachate and it\'s movement onto the ground, and even the leachete to reach the underground waters. So, has been drawn the characteristics curves of the contaminant\'s transportation in the effluents samples found during the percolation process, collected by every 0,25 VP until it reaches 10,0 VP percolated. The characteristical curves of the contaminant\'s transportation drawn showed low concentrations in the effluent samples of Lead, Cadmium, Iron, Zinc, Manganese, Calcium, Magnesium, Cooper, Chromium. Also, Sodium, Potassium, Chlorine, Nickel and Aluminium had been preferencially percolated within the leachate, what evidentiates the variation in the range of concentrations of every percolated element. The concentration profiles from heavy metal\'s had shown that there is a front of contamination. The retention curves from the soil\'s retaining metal showed that the preferency for the sorption was: Cooper > Cadmium > Calcium > Zinc > Magnesium > Potassium > Manganese > Phosphorus > Iron > Nickel > Aluminium, whose values may point the soil\'s ability in retaining contaminants. The studied soil has presented low potential in retain contaminants from the leachete, and is characterized as sandy, and it\'s chemical features shall not be framed according the standards parameters to be utilized in solid urban waste\'s disposal.

The decline in property value can be due to owner's act or exogenous act from the operation of landfills. Landfill neighbors, especially home owners, perceive landfill operation to pose environmental safety problem such as ground water contamination and methane gas leakage that could affect home value. Owners of landfills, especially those landfills that accept only dry waste (limited purpose landfill), claim that since their facilities meet the requirements of environmental regulations and the type of waste they accept could not possibly produce methane gas and leachate there is no property value impact of their facilities. Several studies have shown that landfills do not have impact on property value. However, one recent study found that a large regional landfill have impact on property value. The property value impact of a limited purpose landfill located in Portland, Oregon, was investigated in this study. Data were gathered for homes in approximately one half mile radius around the landfill for the periods before the landfill opened, during operation, and after closure. Hedonic estimation technique incorporated in a multiple linear regression was used to control for a key variable (proximity or distance between the landfill and homes) and examine the relationship of this variable and sale price of homes. The results show that distance of homes (the proxy for perception) from the landfill was positively related and statistically significant with sale prices of homes during the period the landfill was in operation. Distance of homes sold in the periods the landfill was not in existence or operation was not positively related nor statistically significant with sale prices. That is, the operational effects of the landfill was capitalized into property value. With this result, the issue of whether neighbors of landfills should be compensated deserve more attention. The results of this study would be very helpful in negotiating compensation. The results also show that if adequate pollution mitigation measures are in place landfill zoning ordinance should be based on the fact that landfill sites would yield maximum economic benefit to the owner after closure.