A implantação e a ampliação dos sistemas de esgotamento sanitário devem contemplar não só aspectos políticos, técnicos e econômicos, mas também sociais, ambientais e de sustentabilidade. Para subsidiar a tomada de decisão com base neste paradigma, e auxiliar na definição das prioridades de intervenções, propõe-se aqui um novo indicador de sustentabilidade, que aqui foi denominado de Índice de Diluição de Esgoto - IDE. Este índice correlaciona a vazão de esgoto sanitário não tratado com a vazão dos corpos d\'água e permite efetuar a avaliar o sistema de esgotamento sob a ótica da capacidade suporte do ambiente. A revisão bibliográfica abordou quatro temas: os esgotos sanitários, os recursos hídricos superficiais, a poluição dos corpos d\'água por esgoto sanitário e os indicadores de sustentabilidade. Com base nos parâmetros de qualidade padrões dos esgotos sanitários e dos corpos d\'água limpos, bem como na legislação ambiental, foram identificadas quatro faixas de risco associadas aos valores do IDE: acima de 0,1% há o risco à saúde e à eutrofização de represas, acima de 5% à comunidade aquática, acima de 10% à harmonia paisagística e acima de 15% à harmonia odorífera. Com o IDE desenvolvido, foi estudado o caso da Região Metropolitana de São Paulo - RMSP: o valor do índice foi calculado para as suas diversas sub-bacias de esgotamento. As bacias com os maiores valores de IDE situam-se em um anel que circunda a RMSP, enquanto que aquelas com os menores valores, nas porções interna e externa deste anel. Poucas sub-bacias apresentaram valores inferior a 0,1% e muitas apresentaram valores acima de 15%, que extrapola os 200% em alguns casos. O estudo da RMSP foi realizado à luz de variáveis territoriais e socioeconômicas, o que propiciou uma discussão do diagnóstico e do planejamento do sistema de esgotamento sob a ótica da sustentabilidade e dos riscos associados. / The implementation and expansion of sewage systems should include not only political, technical and economic aspects, but also social, environmental and sustainability aspects. In order to support decision-making based on this paradigm and to endorse the interventions\'s priorities selection, a new sustainability indicator is proposed here, which has been called Sewage Dilution Index - SDI. This index correlates untreated sanitary sewage flow with the water bodies flow and allows the evaluation of the sewage system from the perspective of environmental support capacity. The literature review addressed four themes: sanitary sewage, surface water resources, pollution of water bodies by sanitary sewage and sustainability indicators. Based on the sanitary sewers and clean water bodies quality parameters standard, as well as environmental legislation, four risk ranges were identified associated with SDI values: above 0.1% a health and reservoir eutrophication risk was identified, above 5% an aquatic community risk, above 10% a landscape harmony risk and above 15% an odoriferous harmony risk. After the SDI was developed, it was accomplished the São Paulo\'s Metropolitan Area - SPRA case study: the sewage\'s índex values was calculated for it\'s sewage\'s sub-basins. The sub-basins with the highest values of SDI are located in a ring that surrounds the SPRA, whereas those with the lowest values are located inside and outside of this ring. Few sub-basins presented values below 0,1% and many showed values above 15%, which exceeds 200% in some cases. The SPRA case study was accomplished associated with territorial and socioeconomic variables, which allowed a discussion of the diagnosis and planning of the sewage system from the sustainability and associated risks point of view.

A hemovigilância é considerada uma importante ferramenta para a segurança transfusional. Os primeiros sistemas nacionais de hemovigilância, no mundo, foram implantados na década de 1990. No Brasil, o Sistema Nacional de Hemovigilância (SNH), que é coordenado pela Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (Anvisa), iniciou sua implantação, em 2002, com foco nas reações transfusionais (RT), em uma rede restrita de hospitais. No final de 2006, a possibilidade de notificar RT foi estendida aos demais serviços de saúde e os gestores de saúde da esfera estadual também foram inseridos nesse processo. O estado de São Paulo (SP), onde funciona um subsistema do SNH (SNH-SP), colaborou com 41% do total de RT notificadas, no período de 2002 a 2014, segundo a Anvisa. Contudo, apesar de decorridos cerca de 10 anos, o SNH-SP nunca foi avaliado. O objetivo desse trabalho foi avaliar a implantação do SNH-SP, a fim de obter subsídios para sua melhoria. Trata-se de um estudo avaliativo, utilizando-se metodologia de avaliação baseada no Updated Guidelines for Evaluating Public Health Systems do Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Foram utilizadas duas bases de dados secundários: das transfusões e das notificações das RT. Foram também utilizados três questionários concebidos para identificar fatores que contribuem ou não com a adesão e com a implantação do SHN-SP, pelos hospitais, serviços de hemoterapia (SH) e pela vigilância sanitária (Visa). Eles foram respondidos por 81 hospitais, 61 SH e 22 das 28 regionais de Visa. Verificou-se que o SNH-SP tem adesão crescente dos hospitais, especialmente os de maior porte, embora a aceitabilidade destes seja baixa, quando comparada com a dos SH. Foram realizadas 12.182.981 transfusões em 947 serviços de saúde, entre 2008 a 2015, mais de 55% delas, de concentrado de hemácias. O número de notificações de RT aumenta a cada ano, mas há subnotificação geral e de alguns tipos específicos de RT. Foram notificadas 23.942 RT, por 353 serviços de saúde. As 23.734 RT ocorridas nesse período se caracterizaram, predominantemente, como imediatas (97,96%), dos tipos febril não hemolítica (51,81%) e alérgica (38,20%). Apresentaram gravidade leve (87,62%), contudo, houve 35 (0,15%) óbitos. Concentraram-se nos maiores de 50 anos (51,49%). A incidência de RT nesse período variou entre 3,44 e 4,55/1.000, sendo mais elevada nas transfusões de concentrados de granulócitos, chegando a 53,06 RT/1.000. O SNH-SP tem gestão centralizada e tanto ele quanto o sistema de informação utilizado para notificação ainda são desconhecidos de parte dos hospitais. Há déficit de pessoal para trabalhar na área, tanto nos hospitais quanto nas Visa. Há falta de integração com outros sistemas de saúde afins, sugerindo a subnotificação de doenças transmitidas pelo sangue no SNH-SP, como as hepatites B e C. A estruturação do SNH apresenta simplicidade, porém, seu funcionamento atual, em SP, prejudica a avaliação desse atributo. Ao se analisar as RT definidas como eventos sentinela, a oportunidade e a qualidade dos dados foram consideradas insatisfatórias. O SNH-SP foi considerado útil, mas ajustes são recomendados para seu efetivo funcionamento. / Haemovigilance is considered an important tool for transfusion safety. The first national hemovigilance systems in the world were implemented in the 1990s. The Brazilian Hemovigilance System (BHS), which is managed by Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária (Anvisa), began in 2002, focusing on the transfusion reactions (TR) in a limited hospital network. At the end of 2006, the possibility of reporting TR was extended to all health services and state health managers were also included in this process. The state of São Paulo (SP), where a BHS subsystem (BHS-SP) operates, contributed with 41% of the total reported RTs, from 2002 to 2014, according to Anvisa. However, after about 10 years, the BHS-SP has never been evaluated. The objective of this study was to evaluate the implementation of the BHS-SP, in order to obtain inputs for its improvement. This is an evaluative study, using an evaluation methodology based on the Updated Guidelines for Evaluating Public Health Systems of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Two secondary databases were used: transfusions and reported TR. Three questionnaires designed to identify factors that whether or not contribute to the adherence and to the implementation of the SHN-SP, by hospitals, blood banks (BB) and by health surveillance (Visa) were also used. 81 hospitals, 61 BB and 22 out of 28 regional Visa answered them. It was verified that the BHS-SP has an increasing adherence of the hospitals, especially of the larger ones, although the acceptability of these is low, when compared with the BB. 12,182,981 transfusions were performed in 947 health services, from 2008 to 2015, more than 55% of them, of red blood cells. The number of reported TR increases each year, but there is underreporting, in general and in some specific types of RT. 23,942 TRs were reported from 353 health services. The 23,734 TR occurred in this period were characterized as immediate (97.96%), non-haemolytic (51.81%) and allergic (38.20%). They were classified as non-severe (87.62%), however, there were 35 (0.15%) fatalities. They concentrated on those over 50 years old (51.49%). The incidence of TR in this period varied between 3.44 and 4.55/1,000, higher in granulocyte concentrates transfusions, reaching 53.06 TR/1,000. The BHS-SP has centralized management. Both, the BHS-SP and the information system used for reporting TR are still unknown by the hospitals. There is a shortage of staff to work in the area, in hospitals and in Visa. There is a lack of integration with other related health systems, suggesting the underreporting of bloodborne diseases in BHS-SP, such as hepatitis B and C. The organizational structure of the BHS demonstrates simplicity, but its current functioning in SP impairs the evaluation of this attribute. When RTs defined as sentinel events were analyzed, the timeliness and the quality of the data were considered unsatisfactory. The BHS-SP was considered useful, but adjustments are recommended for its effective functioning.

Devido à gravidade da manifestação clínica e pelas altas taxas de mortalidade em populações de risco, o controle e a prevenção da listeriose, doença causada pela L. monocytogenes, representa um importante desafio às autoridades sanitárias. A dificuldade de recuperar organismos envolvidos nos surtos, a sub-notificação e a demora na realização de análises convencionais são alguns dos fatores que retardam ou impedem intervenções em situações de surto. Com o advento da biologia molecular,novas técnicas têm sido empregadas para a identificação e tipificação da L. monocytogenes, com o intuito de contribuir com os estudos epidemiológicos e de vigilância sanitária de alimentos. O presente estudo visou confirmar a taxonomia e o perfil genotípico de 31 cepas isoladas de diversos tipos de carne, supostamente identificadas como L. monocytogenes, por intermédio das técnicas de Reação de Cadeia pela Polimerase (PCR), com o emprego de iniciadores de identificação dos genes 16S rRNA e Internalina A e B, para confirmação da espécie. Os resultados indicaram que apenas 20 (65%) das cepas foram confirmadas como sendo da espécie investigada. Foi realizada ainda a avaliação de similaridade nas 20 cepas confirmadas, através da Eletroforese em Campo Pulsado (PFGE), que revelou grande diversidade genotípica, caracterizada por 18 diferentes perfis, segundo o coeficiente de similaridade de Pearson. Os resultados demonstraram que as técnicas moleculares são de grande utilidade para a identificação e tipificação de L. monocytogenes, caracterizando-se como importantes ferramentas epidemiológicas. / Due to the seriousness of clinical manifestations and high rates of mortality of the listeriosis disease in populations at risk, control and prevention of this disease, caused by L. monocytogenes, represent an important challenge to sanitation authorities. Difficulties of recovering organisms involved in outbreaks; sub notification; and, the delay in accomplishing conventional analysis are some of the factors that slow-down or even prevent health interventions in outbreak occurrences. With the advent of the molecular biology, new techniques have been employed for identifying and typifying the L. monocytogenes aiming at contributing to studies on epidemiology and sanitary surveillance of foods. The present study aimed at ratifying the taxonomy and the genotypic profile of 31 isolated stocks of varied types of meats supposedly identified as L. monocytogenes by means of the Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) employing identification starters of genes 16 rRNA and A and B Internalin in order to confirm the species. Results indicated that only 20 (65.0%) of the stocks were confirmed as being from the investigated species. Another evaluation of similarity were also carried out along with the 20 stocks ratified through pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), which disclosed a great genotypic diversity characterized by 18 different profiles, according to the Pearson’s similarity coefficient. Results demonstrated that the molecular techniques are very helpful for identifying and typifying the L. monocytogenes, characterizing themselves as important epidemiological tools.

A new model for the simulation of street canyon atmospheric chemical processing has been developed, by integrating an existing Large-Eddy Simulation (LES) dynamical model of canyon atmospheric motion with a detailed chemical reaction mechanism, the Reduced Chemical Scheme (RCS), comprising 51 chemical species and 136 reactions, based upon a subset of the Master Chemical Mechanism (MCM). The combined LES-RCS model is used to investigate both the effects of mixing and chemical processing upon air quality within an idealised street canyon. The effect of the combination of dynamical (segregation) and chemical effects is determined by comparing the outputs of the full LES-RCS canyon model with those obtained when representing the canyon as a zero-dimensional box model (i.e. assuming mixing is complete and instantaneous). The LES-RCS approach predicts lower (canyon-averaged) levels of NOX, OH and HO2, but higher levels of O3, compared with the box model run under identical chemical and emission conditions. Chemical processing of emissions within the canyon leads to a significant increase in the Ox flux from the canyon into the overlying boundary layer, relative to primary emissions, for the idealised case and a number of pollution scenarios considered. These results demonstrate that within-canyon atmospheric chemical processing can substantially alter the concentrations of pollutants injected into the urban canopy layer, compared with the raw emission rates within the street canyon and that such variations have a considerable effect on average within canyon concentrations and the flux of pollutants out of the canyon into the urban background environment.

Research has been undertaken to develop new yttria slurry systems for use in mould face coats for investment casting TiAl alloy, solving the pre-gelation problems of commercial yttria slurry systems to increase slurry life. Meanwhile, the new face coats should also have excellent sintering properties, chemical inertness, surface finish and be easy to prepare. The processes of developing the new slurry started with the filler powder investigation by adding different sintering additives into the yttria powder to achieve good sintering properties. Then the best filler powder candidates were selected to make the slurry. Finally, the new face coat slurries were used to make the shell face coat and the chemical inertness of those shells were investigated through the sessile drop and investment casting. In the research, the filler powder and face coat sintering properties were quantified through density, dilatometer testing, X-ray diffraction (XRD) and microstructural change at different testing temperatures. The interaction of different face coat systems and the metal were identified using hardness tests, sessile drop contact angle and the microstructural change at the metal/shell interface. In this research, three water-based binder face coat systems containing YF\(_3\), Y\(_2\)O\(_3\)+0.5wt% Al\(_2\)O\(_3\)+ 0.5 wt% ZrO\(_2\) (YAZ), and B\(_2\)O\(_3\) additives were found to have similar or even better sintering properties compared to a commercial face coat. Meanwhile, they had long life.

Developing countries pay a high price for water treatment due to importation of water treatment chemicals. Today, more than 663 million people lack access to a clean water supply which results in many deaths. Hibiscus plant seeds, namely Okra, Sabdariffa and Kenaf were investigated to identify their suitability as alternative water treatment materials to provide clean water supply to people in developing countries. Coagulation and disinfection ability of the extracts were assessed using a jar tester and Collilert-18 Quanti-Tray methods whereas dissolved organic carbon (DOC) test was performed using Shimadzu TOC analyser. The results of this work revealed that all the seed samples possess an anionic coagulant protein with a low molecular weight of 39 kDa. The potential of the seeds in crude form was clearly demonstrated, albeit with some issues regarding organic nutrient addition to the clarified water. However, this challenge was overcome by purifying the seed proteins in an ion exchange column where the impact of DOC addition was significantly reduced in the treated water, as demonstrated via fluorescence excitation-emission matrices. Additionally, the coagulant proteins identified in the region of tryptophan-like fluorescence were found to be stable after heat treatment. Furthermore, sludge production using seed extracts was found to be 5 times lower than that of aluminium sulphate (AS) and the pH of the treated water remained largely unaffected after treatment. Floc strength tests, undertaken using a laser diffraction instrument Mastersizer 2000, showed that the use of seeds as coagulant aids in combination with AS improved floc properties, leading to faster floc growth and shorter coagulation time.

Manufacturers are under pressure to reformulate products to make healthier foods, without changing desirability or flavour. A better understanding of product breakdown under oral conditions is essential to structure novel products which are healthier without consumers noticing. In-vitro methods were developed to explore product behaviour when subject to a range of phenomena relevant to those in the mouth, with particular emphasis on lubrication behaviour. Polysaccharides common in food products were mainly used as model systems and salt release was studied in some systems. Three in-vitro systems were developed and used in this study. Firstly, a stirred vessel was developed to gather data of salt release from gelatin, gellan and alginate systems, under quiescent conditions. This was a reliable method of tracking diffusion of sodium ions through the gel structures into a surrounding liquid, showing that diffusion was unaffected by the differing structure of the gels. The second system introduced the effect of compression. Only when pressures are sufficient to rupture the gel samples did compressions affect salt release over that observed in the stirred vessel study. Samples released the majority of their contained salt up to nine times faster, as a result of greater surface areas being exposed. Finally, tribology equipment was developed, which explores the thin film, high shear behaviour of materials. An exploration of available equipment, processing parameters and configurations was carried out to determine optimum surfaces, normal forces and speed ranges which could be related to phenomena occurring in the mouth. The lubricating properties of inhomogeneous polysaccharides with different physical properties were studied. The mixing behaviour of the polysaccharide greatly affected the lubrication response; some mixed quickly so lubricated more efficiently and vice versa. Finally, the developed tribology equipment was used to study the ordering process of a series of fluid gel samples, indicating that lubrication tracks the ordering process, with a decrease in lubrication when structure forms. The pattern of this response is a result of polysaccharide and salt content of the materials, with increasing content enhancing the change in lubrication experienced as more rigid gel particles are produced. The work presented in this thesis shows that the use of in-vitro methods can provide repeatable information on structure behaviour under conditions relevant to the mouth. This information could then be used to develop and assess future food products for their expected performance when consumed.

There is a requirement to predict the spatial variation of particle dry deposition following a nuclear accident. The interaction of landscape features, atmospheric flow and particle dry deposition has been investigated with this in mind. Wind tunnel studies have been used with computational fluid dynamics to predict the deposition rate relative to a flat landscape. Good quantitative agreement was seen for this relative deposition rate. Landscape shapes showed significant effects on deposition rate, increasing it by more than two in some cases, over limited areas. The effect of turbulence intensity, in the absence of landscape features, was also studied and a weak relationship to dry deposition was observed. Computational fluid dynamics methods used in wind tunnel comparisons were extended to a wide range of landscape cases. Deposition rates varied spatially around the landscape features. In general, for hills and ridges, deposition was seen to increase on the windward face, decrease on the leeward face and near wake, and increase in the further wake, before returning to the flat case value. The computational results were applied to a real landscape with the use of a customised geographical information system. Good general agreement was seen when compared with a test case.

In the thesis the structural response of steel tubular wind turbine towers with various design configurations is analysed using FEM modelling. First, a structural response simulation model was validated by comparison with the existing experimental data. This was then followed with a mesh density sensitivity analysis to obtain the optimum element size. Based on this outcome, towers of various heights between 50-250m are considered and investigated with three different design options as follows: (i) thick walled tower with internal horizontal stiffening rings, (ii) thick walled tower without stiffening rings and (iii) thin walled tower with stiffening rings. Based on this analysis, weight reduction ratios are examined in relation to the horizontal sway and von Mises stress increase ratios in order to identify a more efficient design approach between reducing the wall thickness and adopting internal stiffeners. All studied design solutions satisfy the strength and serviceability requirements as specified by the design codes of practice.

This thesis introduces a new methodological approach to provide a framework for environmental health and socioeconomic perception that critically assesses the management of treated wastewater (TWW) reuse practice and options. The methodology combines Multi-Criteria decision Making (MCDM) and Rapid Impact Assessment Matrix (RIAM). The approach uses expert opinion to assess TWW reuse options and converts the qualitative subjective evaluation of experts into quantitative objective and numeric output. The methodology includes the use of a Driver Force, Pressure, State, Impact and Response (DPSIR) framework to analyse the current situation in a specific case study (Kuwait). The research identified the best available TWW reuse options for Kuwait and determined the essential environmental health and socioeconomic criteria affected by the practice of selected TWW reuse options. The latter include recreational and agricultural irrigation, firefighting and industrial and ruses, oil depressurization and groundwater recharge. Options where the public had direct contact with TWW, such as showering, cooking and drinking were rejected. Environmental health criteria were found to be the most significant criteria associated with TWW reuse practice and options, but given current heavy subsidies of wastewater treatment, distribution and transportation, the economic burden was also significant. Further research in this area is recommended to enable a reduction of pressures on freshwater resources through TWW reuse practice and this should be included within a wider context of integrated water management (IWM).