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  • About
  • The Global ETD Search service is a free service for researchers to find electronic theses and dissertations. This service is provided by the Networked Digital Library of Theses and Dissertations.
    Our metadata is collected from universities around the world. If you manage a university/consortium/country archive and want to be added, details can be found on the NDLTD website.
1

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF A SILICON SCHOTTKY DIODE DETECTOR FOR SINGLE PROTON COUNTING AT THE MCMASTER MICROBEAM LABORATORY

Urlich, Tomas Richard January 2017 (has links)
Microbeams have been used for radiation biology research since their introduction in the 1950s. A goal since their inception has been to irradiate individual cells and sub-cellular components with individual charged particles. These two criteria have been simultaneously achievable only within the last decade thanks to new technologies capable of producing very thin materials. The McMaster Microbeam Laboratory wishes to conduct such experiments using a proton beam. However, there are presently no commercially available detectors for this application, which necessitates the need for a new detector. Following literature research, a 10 μm thin Schottky diode detector was selected as the most appropriate type of detector for the setup at McMaster. The design of the detector and detection system geometries were optimized to reduce beam scattering and broadening with the aid of TRIM and MCNP simulations. Two detectors were fully constructed. However, a stable response to radiation was not achieved. One of the detectors appeared to function as a radiation detector very briefly but this result was not reproducible. The I-V curve of the detectors proved that they functioned as expected as diodes. However, without a radiation response no further characterization could be completed. Although problem solving efforts to overcome this issue were unsuccessful, a large silicon dopant concentration is suspected to be a possible cause. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)
2

Fabrication and characterization of a silicon nanowire based Schottky-barrier field effect transistor platform for functional electronics and biosensor applications / Herstellung und Charakterisierung einer Silizium-Nanodraht basierten Schottky-Barrieren-Feld-Effekt-Transistor-Plattform für funktionelle Elektronik und Biosensoranwendungen

Pregl, Sebastian 18 June 2015 (has links) (PDF)
This work focuses on the evaluation of the feasibility to employ silicon (Si) nanowire based parallel arrays of Schottky-barrier field effect transistors (SB-FETs) as transducers for potentiometric biosensors and their overall performance as building blocks for novel functional electronics. Nanowire parallel arrays of SB-FETs were produced and electrically characterized during this work. Nominally undoped Si nanowires with mean diameter of 20nm were synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) driven bottom-up growth and subsequently transferred via a printing process to Si/SiO2 chip substrates. Thereby, dense parallel aligned nanowire arrays are created. After dry oxidation of the nanowires, standard photolithography and deposition methods are employed to contact several hundred nanowires with interdigitated Ni electrodes in parallel. A silicidation step is used to produce axially intruded Ni-silicide (metallic) phases with a very abrupt interface to the Si (semiconducting) segment. Acting as front gate dielectric, the chip surface is entirely covered by an Al2O3 layer. For sensor applications, this layer further serves as electrical isolation of the electrodes and protects them from corrosion in electrolytes. Fabricated devices are part of the SOI (Si on insulator) transistor family with top (front) and back gate and exhibit ambipolar rectifying behavior. The top gate exhibits omega geometry with a 20nm thin Al2O3 dielectric, the back gate planar geometry with a 400nm thick SiO2 dielectric. The influence of both gates on the charge transport is summarized in the statistical analysis of transfer and output characteristic for 7 different lengths (for each 20 devices) of the Si conduction channel. A nonlinear scaling of on-currents and transconductance with channel length is revealed. Off-currents are influenced from both p- and n-type conduction at the same time. Increasing lateral electric fields (LEF) lead to a decline of suppression capability of both p- and n-currents by a single gate. This is reflected in a deteriorated swing and higher off-current towards decreasing channel lengths (increasing LEF). However, by individual gating of Schottky junction and channel, p- and n-type currents can be controlled individually. Both charge carrier types, p and n, can be suppressed efficiently at the same time leading to low off-currents and high on/off current ratio for all investigated channel lengths. This is achieved by a combined top and back double gate architecture, for which the back gate controls the Schottky junction resistance. It is demonstrated that a fixed high Schottky junction serial resistance, severely impairs the transconductance. However, the transconductance can be significantly increased by lowering this resistance via the back gate, enhancing the transducer performance significantly. Al2O3 covered SB-FETs were employed as pH sensors to evaluate their performance and signal to noise ratio (SNR). Current modulation per pH was observed to be directly proportional to the transconductance. The transistor related signal to noise ratio (SNR) is thus proportional to the transconductance to current noise ratio. Device noise was characterized and found to limit the SNR already below the peak transconductance regime. Statistical analysis showed that the nanowire SB-FET transconductance and noise both scale proportional with the current. Therefore, the SNR was found to be independent on the nanowire channel lengths under investigation. The high process yield of nanowire SB-FET parallel array fabrication close to hundred percent enables this platform to be used for simple logic and biosensor elements. Because of the low fabrication temperatures needed, the foundation is laid to produce complementary logic with undoped Si on flexible substrates. For previously reported results, the presence of Schottky junctions severely impaired the transconductance, restricting the applicability of SB-FETs as transducers. This work shows, that an electric decoupling of the Schottky junction can reduce these restrictions, making SB-FETs feasible for sensor applications. / Diese Dissertation ist der Bewertung von Silizium (Si) Nanodraht basierten Parallelschaltungen von Schottky-Barrieren-Feld-Effekt-Transistoren (SB-FETs) als Wandler für potentiometrische Biosensoren und deren generelle Leistungsfähigkeit als Bauelement neuartiger funktioneller Elektronik gewidmet. In dieser Arbeit wurden Parallelschaltungen von Nanodraht SB-FETs hergestellt und elektrisch charakterisiert. Nominell undotierte Si Nanodrähte mit durchschnittlichem Durchmesser von 20nm wurden mittels chemischer Dampfphasenabscheidung (CVD) synthetisiert und anschließend durch einen Druckprozess auf ein Si/SiO2 Chip-Substrat transferiert. Damit wurden dicht gepackte, parallel ausgerichtete Nanodraht Schichten erzeugt. Nach Trockenoxidation der Nanodrähte wurden diese mit Standard Lithographie und Abscheidungsmethoden mit interdigitalen Nickel (Ni) Elektroden als Parallelschaltung kontaktiert. Durch einen Temperprozess bilden sich axial eindiffundierte metallische Ni-Silizid-Phasen, mit einer sehr abrupten Grenzfläche zum halbleitenden Si Segments des Nanodrahts. Die Chipoberfläche wird vollständig mit einer Al2O3-Schicht bedeckt, welche als Frontgate-Dielektrikum oder als elektrische Isolation und Korrosionsschutzschicht für Elektroden in Elektrolytlösungen im Falle der Sensoranwendungen dient. Die hier gezeigten Bauelemente sind Teil der SOI (Si on insulator) Transistoren-Familie mit Top- (Front) und Backgate und zeigen ein ambipolares Schaltverhalten. Die Topgates besitzen eine Omega-Geometrie mit 20nm dickem Al2O3 Dielektrikum, das Backgate eine planare Geometrie mit 400nm dickem SiO2 Dielektrikum. Der Einfluss beider Gates auf den Ladungstransport ist in einer statistischen Analyse der Transfer- und Output-Charaktersitiken für 7 unterschiedliche Si-Leitungskanallängen zusammengefasst. Eine nichtlineare Skalierung von Strom und Transkonduktanz mit Leitungskanallänge wurde aufgedeckt. Die Ströme im Aus-Zustand des Transistors sind durch das Vorhandensein gleichzeitiger p- als auch n-Typ Leitung bestimmt. Die Zunahme lateraler elektrischer Felder (LEF) führt zu einem Verlust des gleichzeitigen Ausschaltvermögens von p- und n-Strömen bei Ansteuerung mit einem einzelnen Gate. Dies äußert sich durch einen graduell verschlechterten Swing und höheren Strom im Aus-Zustand bei verringerter Leitungskanallänge (gleichbedeutend mit erhöhten LEF). Durch eine getrennte Ansteuerung von Schottky-Kontakt und Leitungskanal lassen sich p- and n-Leitung jedoch unabhängig voneinander kontrollieren. Beide Ladungsträgertypen können so simultan effizient unterdrückt werden, was zu einem geringen Strom im Aus-Zustand und einem hohen An/Aus- Stromverhältnis für alle untersuchten Kanallängen führt. Dies wird durch eine Gatearchitektur mit kombiniertem Top- und Backgate erreicht, bei der das Backgate den Ladungstransport durch den Schottky-Kontakt und dessen Serienwiderstand kontrolliert. Es wird gezeigt, dass ein konstant hoher Schottky-Kontakt bedingter Serienwiderstand die Transkonduktanz erheblich vermindert. Jedoch kann die Transkonduktanz im höchsten Maße durch eine Herabsetzung des Serienwiderstandes durch das Backgate gesteigert werden. Dies erhöht die Leistungsfähigkeit des SB-FET als Wandler deutlich. Al2O3 oberflächenbeschichtete SB-FETs wurden als pH-Sensoren erprobt, um deren Tauglichkeit und Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhältnis (SNR) zu evaluieren. Die Strommodulation pro pH-Wert konnte als direkt proportional zur Transkonduktanz bestätigt werden. Das Transistor bedingte SNR ist daher proportional zum Verhältnis von Transkonduktanz und Stromrauschen. Bei der Analyse des Transistorrauschens wurde festgestellt, dass dieses das SNR bereits bei einer niedrigeren Transkonduktanz als der maximal Möglichen limitiert. Eine statistische Auswertung zeigte, dass sowohl SB-FET Transkonduktanz als auch Stromrauschen proportional zu dem Transistorstrom skalieren. Somit ist deren Verhältnis unabhängig von der Nanodraht-Leitungskanallänge, im hier untersuchten Rahmen. Die geringe Ausschuss bei der Fabrikation der Nanodraht SB-FET-Parallelschaltungen ermöglicht eine Nutzung dieser Plattform für simple Logik und Biosensorelemente. Durch die geringen Prozesstemperaturen wurde die Grundlage geschaffen, komplementäre Logik mit undotiertem Si auf flexiblen Substraten zu fertigen. Vorangegangene Resultate zeigte eine verminderte Transkonduktanz durch die Präsenz von Schottky-Barrieren, was die Anwendbarkeit von SB-FETs als Wandler einschränkt. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass eine elekrtische Entkopplung der Schottky-Kontakte zu einer Aufhebung dieser Beschränkung führen kann und somit den Einsatz von SB-FETs als praktikable Wandler für Sensoranwendungen zulässt.
3

Fabrication and characterization of a silicon nanowire based Schottky-barrier field effect transistor platform for functional electronics and biosensor applications

Pregl, Sebastian 30 April 2015 (has links)
This work focuses on the evaluation of the feasibility to employ silicon (Si) nanowire based parallel arrays of Schottky-barrier field effect transistors (SB-FETs) as transducers for potentiometric biosensors and their overall performance as building blocks for novel functional electronics. Nanowire parallel arrays of SB-FETs were produced and electrically characterized during this work. Nominally undoped Si nanowires with mean diameter of 20nm were synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) driven bottom-up growth and subsequently transferred via a printing process to Si/SiO2 chip substrates. Thereby, dense parallel aligned nanowire arrays are created. After dry oxidation of the nanowires, standard photolithography and deposition methods are employed to contact several hundred nanowires with interdigitated Ni electrodes in parallel. A silicidation step is used to produce axially intruded Ni-silicide (metallic) phases with a very abrupt interface to the Si (semiconducting) segment. Acting as front gate dielectric, the chip surface is entirely covered by an Al2O3 layer. For sensor applications, this layer further serves as electrical isolation of the electrodes and protects them from corrosion in electrolytes. Fabricated devices are part of the SOI (Si on insulator) transistor family with top (front) and back gate and exhibit ambipolar rectifying behavior. The top gate exhibits omega geometry with a 20nm thin Al2O3 dielectric, the back gate planar geometry with a 400nm thick SiO2 dielectric. The influence of both gates on the charge transport is summarized in the statistical analysis of transfer and output characteristic for 7 different lengths (for each 20 devices) of the Si conduction channel. A nonlinear scaling of on-currents and transconductance with channel length is revealed. Off-currents are influenced from both p- and n-type conduction at the same time. Increasing lateral electric fields (LEF) lead to a decline of suppression capability of both p- and n-currents by a single gate. This is reflected in a deteriorated swing and higher off-current towards decreasing channel lengths (increasing LEF). However, by individual gating of Schottky junction and channel, p- and n-type currents can be controlled individually. Both charge carrier types, p and n, can be suppressed efficiently at the same time leading to low off-currents and high on/off current ratio for all investigated channel lengths. This is achieved by a combined top and back double gate architecture, for which the back gate controls the Schottky junction resistance. It is demonstrated that a fixed high Schottky junction serial resistance, severely impairs the transconductance. However, the transconductance can be significantly increased by lowering this resistance via the back gate, enhancing the transducer performance significantly. Al2O3 covered SB-FETs were employed as pH sensors to evaluate their performance and signal to noise ratio (SNR). Current modulation per pH was observed to be directly proportional to the transconductance. The transistor related signal to noise ratio (SNR) is thus proportional to the transconductance to current noise ratio. Device noise was characterized and found to limit the SNR already below the peak transconductance regime. Statistical analysis showed that the nanowire SB-FET transconductance and noise both scale proportional with the current. Therefore, the SNR was found to be independent on the nanowire channel lengths under investigation. The high process yield of nanowire SB-FET parallel array fabrication close to hundred percent enables this platform to be used for simple logic and biosensor elements. Because of the low fabrication temperatures needed, the foundation is laid to produce complementary logic with undoped Si on flexible substrates. For previously reported results, the presence of Schottky junctions severely impaired the transconductance, restricting the applicability of SB-FETs as transducers. This work shows, that an electric decoupling of the Schottky junction can reduce these restrictions, making SB-FETs feasible for sensor applications.:Table of contents 11 List of figures 14 Abbreviations 15 Introduction 17 1 Fundamentals 23 1.1 Bottom up growth of Si nanowires 23 1.2 MOS and Schottky barrier transistor theory 25 1.2.1 MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 25 1.2.2 Gate coupling 27 1.2.3 Oxide charges and flatband voltage 29 1.2.4 Charge trapping and charge-voltage hysteresis 30 1.2.5 Schottky barrier 32 1.2.6 SB-FETs 34 1.3 ISFET and BioFET technology 36 1.3.1 ISFET and BioFET working principle 37 1.3.2 Noise in ISFETs 41 2 Fabrication of Schottky barrier FET parallel arrays 43 2.1 Starting point of device fabrication 43 2.2 Parallel array transistor and sensor devices 44 2.2.1 Gold nano particle deposition 45 2.2.2 Bottom-up growth of Si nanowires 46 2.2.3 Nanowire deposition methods 48 Langmuir-Blodgett 48 Adhesion tape transfer 49 Contact printing/ smearing transfer 49 2.2.4 Nanowire oxidation 50 2.2.5 Chip design 51 2.2.6 UV lithography 53 2.2.7 Oxide removal and metal deposition 54 2.2.8 Nanowire silicidation 54 2.2.9 Ionsensitive, top gate dielectric and contact passivation 56 2.2.10 On chip reference electrode 57 3 Electrical characterization 59 3.1 Electrical characterization methods 59 3.2 Transfer characteristics 60 3.2.1 Silicidation: intruded silicide contacts 62 3.2.2 Scaling of the conduction channel length 63 3.2.3 Flatband voltage, built-in potentials, fixed and trapped oxide charge 71 3.2.4 Surface effects on the channel potential of back gated SB-FETs 72 3.3 Charge traps, hysteresis and Vth drifts 73 3.3.1 Screening of back gate fields by water molecules 74 3.3.2 Native oxides: unipolarity by water promoted charge trapping 76 3.3.3 Hysteresis for thermally grown oxide back and top gate devices 78 3.3.4 Hysteresis reduction by post anneal 79 3.4 Output characteristics 80 3.4.1 Unipolar output characteristics of nanowires with native oxide shell 80 3.4.2 Ambipolar output characteristics of nanowires with dry oxidized shell 82 3.5 Temperature dependence 84 3.6 Transistor noise 86 4 pH measurements 91 4.1 Experimental setup and data analysis method 91 4.2 Transfer function in electrolyte with liquid gate 92 4.3 Sensor response on pH 92 4.4 Sensor signal drifts 96 5 Schottky junction impact on sensitivity 97 5.1 Schottky junction electrostatic decoupling in solution 97 5.1.1 Experimental setup in solution 98 5.1.2 SU8/Al2O3 passivated junctions in electrolyte 98 5.2 Meander shaped gates without Schottky junction overlap 101 5.2.1 Separated gating of Schottky junctions and channel 102 5.2.2 Enhanced transducer performance by reduced Schottky junction resistance 104 6 Summary and Outlook 107 List of publications 111 Bibliography 126 Acknowledgements 127 / Diese Dissertation ist der Bewertung von Silizium (Si) Nanodraht basierten Parallelschaltungen von Schottky-Barrieren-Feld-Effekt-Transistoren (SB-FETs) als Wandler für potentiometrische Biosensoren und deren generelle Leistungsfähigkeit als Bauelement neuartiger funktioneller Elektronik gewidmet. In dieser Arbeit wurden Parallelschaltungen von Nanodraht SB-FETs hergestellt und elektrisch charakterisiert. Nominell undotierte Si Nanodrähte mit durchschnittlichem Durchmesser von 20nm wurden mittels chemischer Dampfphasenabscheidung (CVD) synthetisiert und anschließend durch einen Druckprozess auf ein Si/SiO2 Chip-Substrat transferiert. Damit wurden dicht gepackte, parallel ausgerichtete Nanodraht Schichten erzeugt. Nach Trockenoxidation der Nanodrähte wurden diese mit Standard Lithographie und Abscheidungsmethoden mit interdigitalen Nickel (Ni) Elektroden als Parallelschaltung kontaktiert. Durch einen Temperprozess bilden sich axial eindiffundierte metallische Ni-Silizid-Phasen, mit einer sehr abrupten Grenzfläche zum halbleitenden Si Segments des Nanodrahts. Die Chipoberfläche wird vollständig mit einer Al2O3-Schicht bedeckt, welche als Frontgate-Dielektrikum oder als elektrische Isolation und Korrosionsschutzschicht für Elektroden in Elektrolytlösungen im Falle der Sensoranwendungen dient. Die hier gezeigten Bauelemente sind Teil der SOI (Si on insulator) Transistoren-Familie mit Top- (Front) und Backgate und zeigen ein ambipolares Schaltverhalten. Die Topgates besitzen eine Omega-Geometrie mit 20nm dickem Al2O3 Dielektrikum, das Backgate eine planare Geometrie mit 400nm dickem SiO2 Dielektrikum. Der Einfluss beider Gates auf den Ladungstransport ist in einer statistischen Analyse der Transfer- und Output-Charaktersitiken für 7 unterschiedliche Si-Leitungskanallängen zusammengefasst. Eine nichtlineare Skalierung von Strom und Transkonduktanz mit Leitungskanallänge wurde aufgedeckt. Die Ströme im Aus-Zustand des Transistors sind durch das Vorhandensein gleichzeitiger p- als auch n-Typ Leitung bestimmt. Die Zunahme lateraler elektrischer Felder (LEF) führt zu einem Verlust des gleichzeitigen Ausschaltvermögens von p- und n-Strömen bei Ansteuerung mit einem einzelnen Gate. Dies äußert sich durch einen graduell verschlechterten Swing und höheren Strom im Aus-Zustand bei verringerter Leitungskanallänge (gleichbedeutend mit erhöhten LEF). Durch eine getrennte Ansteuerung von Schottky-Kontakt und Leitungskanal lassen sich p- and n-Leitung jedoch unabhängig voneinander kontrollieren. Beide Ladungsträgertypen können so simultan effizient unterdrückt werden, was zu einem geringen Strom im Aus-Zustand und einem hohen An/Aus- Stromverhältnis für alle untersuchten Kanallängen führt. Dies wird durch eine Gatearchitektur mit kombiniertem Top- und Backgate erreicht, bei der das Backgate den Ladungstransport durch den Schottky-Kontakt und dessen Serienwiderstand kontrolliert. Es wird gezeigt, dass ein konstant hoher Schottky-Kontakt bedingter Serienwiderstand die Transkonduktanz erheblich vermindert. Jedoch kann die Transkonduktanz im höchsten Maße durch eine Herabsetzung des Serienwiderstandes durch das Backgate gesteigert werden. Dies erhöht die Leistungsfähigkeit des SB-FET als Wandler deutlich. Al2O3 oberflächenbeschichtete SB-FETs wurden als pH-Sensoren erprobt, um deren Tauglichkeit und Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhältnis (SNR) zu evaluieren. Die Strommodulation pro pH-Wert konnte als direkt proportional zur Transkonduktanz bestätigt werden. Das Transistor bedingte SNR ist daher proportional zum Verhältnis von Transkonduktanz und Stromrauschen. Bei der Analyse des Transistorrauschens wurde festgestellt, dass dieses das SNR bereits bei einer niedrigeren Transkonduktanz als der maximal Möglichen limitiert. Eine statistische Auswertung zeigte, dass sowohl SB-FET Transkonduktanz als auch Stromrauschen proportional zu dem Transistorstrom skalieren. Somit ist deren Verhältnis unabhängig von der Nanodraht-Leitungskanallänge, im hier untersuchten Rahmen. Die geringe Ausschuss bei der Fabrikation der Nanodraht SB-FET-Parallelschaltungen ermöglicht eine Nutzung dieser Plattform für simple Logik und Biosensorelemente. Durch die geringen Prozesstemperaturen wurde die Grundlage geschaffen, komplementäre Logik mit undotiertem Si auf flexiblen Substraten zu fertigen. Vorangegangene Resultate zeigte eine verminderte Transkonduktanz durch die Präsenz von Schottky-Barrieren, was die Anwendbarkeit von SB-FETs als Wandler einschränkt. Diese Arbeit zeigt, dass eine elekrtische Entkopplung der Schottky-Kontakte zu einer Aufhebung dieser Beschränkung führen kann und somit den Einsatz von SB-FETs als praktikable Wandler für Sensoranwendungen zulässt.:Table of contents 11 List of figures 14 Abbreviations 15 Introduction 17 1 Fundamentals 23 1.1 Bottom up growth of Si nanowires 23 1.2 MOS and Schottky barrier transistor theory 25 1.2.1 MOSFET: Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 25 1.2.2 Gate coupling 27 1.2.3 Oxide charges and flatband voltage 29 1.2.4 Charge trapping and charge-voltage hysteresis 30 1.2.5 Schottky barrier 32 1.2.6 SB-FETs 34 1.3 ISFET and BioFET technology 36 1.3.1 ISFET and BioFET working principle 37 1.3.2 Noise in ISFETs 41 2 Fabrication of Schottky barrier FET parallel arrays 43 2.1 Starting point of device fabrication 43 2.2 Parallel array transistor and sensor devices 44 2.2.1 Gold nano particle deposition 45 2.2.2 Bottom-up growth of Si nanowires 46 2.2.3 Nanowire deposition methods 48 Langmuir-Blodgett 48 Adhesion tape transfer 49 Contact printing/ smearing transfer 49 2.2.4 Nanowire oxidation 50 2.2.5 Chip design 51 2.2.6 UV lithography 53 2.2.7 Oxide removal and metal deposition 54 2.2.8 Nanowire silicidation 54 2.2.9 Ionsensitive, top gate dielectric and contact passivation 56 2.2.10 On chip reference electrode 57 3 Electrical characterization 59 3.1 Electrical characterization methods 59 3.2 Transfer characteristics 60 3.2.1 Silicidation: intruded silicide contacts 62 3.2.2 Scaling of the conduction channel length 63 3.2.3 Flatband voltage, built-in potentials, fixed and trapped oxide charge 71 3.2.4 Surface effects on the channel potential of back gated SB-FETs 72 3.3 Charge traps, hysteresis and Vth drifts 73 3.3.1 Screening of back gate fields by water molecules 74 3.3.2 Native oxides: unipolarity by water promoted charge trapping 76 3.3.3 Hysteresis for thermally grown oxide back and top gate devices 78 3.3.4 Hysteresis reduction by post anneal 79 3.4 Output characteristics 80 3.4.1 Unipolar output characteristics of nanowires with native oxide shell 80 3.4.2 Ambipolar output characteristics of nanowires with dry oxidized shell 82 3.5 Temperature dependence 84 3.6 Transistor noise 86 4 pH measurements 91 4.1 Experimental setup and data analysis method 91 4.2 Transfer function in electrolyte with liquid gate 92 4.3 Sensor response on pH 92 4.4 Sensor signal drifts 96 5 Schottky junction impact on sensitivity 97 5.1 Schottky junction electrostatic decoupling in solution 97 5.1.1 Experimental setup in solution 98 5.1.2 SU8/Al2O3 passivated junctions in electrolyte 98 5.2 Meander shaped gates without Schottky junction overlap 101 5.2.1 Separated gating of Schottky junctions and channel 102 5.2.2 Enhanced transducer performance by reduced Schottky junction resistance 104 6 Summary and Outlook 107 List of publications 111 Bibliography 126 Acknowledgements 127
4

Semipolar And Nonpolar Group III-Nitride Heterostructures By Plasma-Assisted Molecular Beam Epitaxy

Rajpalke, Mohana K 07 1900 (has links) (PDF)
Group III-nitride semiconductors are well suited for the fabrication of devices including visible-ultraviolet light emitting diodes, high-temperature and high-frequency devices. The wurtzite III-nitride based heterostructures grown along polar c-direction have large internal electric fields due to discontinuities in spontaneous and piezoelectric polarizations. For optoelectronic devices, such as light-emitting diodes and laser diodes, the internal electric field is deleterious as it causes a spatial separation of electron and hole wave functions in the quantum wells, which decreases emission efficiency. Growth of GaN-based heterostructures in alternative orientations, which have reduced (semipolar) or no polarization (nonpolar) in the growth direction, has been a major area of research in the last few years. The correlation between structural, optical and transport properties of semipolar and nonpolar III-nitride would be extremely useful. The thesis focuses on the growth and characterizations of semipolar and nonpolar III-nitride heterostructures by plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy. Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to the III-nitride semiconductors. The importance of semipolar and nonpolar III-nitride heterostructures over conventional polar heterostructures has been discussed. Chapter 2 deals with the descriptions of molecular beam epitaxy system and working principles of different characterization tools used in the present work. Chapter 3 addresses the molecular beam epitaxial growth of nonpolar (1 1 -2 0) and semipolar (1 1 -2 2) GaN on sapphire substrates. An in-plane orientation relationship is found to be [0 0 0 1] GaN || [-1 1 0 1] sapphire and [-1 1 0 0] GaN || [1 1 -2 0] sapphire for nonpolar GaN on r-sapphire substrates. Effect of growth temperature on structural, morphological and optical properties of nonpolar GaN has been studied. The growth temperature plays a major role in controlling crystal quality, morphology and emission properties of nonpolar a-plane GaN. The a-plane GaN shows crystalline anisotropy nature and it has reduced with increase in the growth temperature. The surface roughness was found to decrease with increase in growth temperature and film grown at 760°C shows reasonably smooth surface with roughness 3.05 nm. Room temperature photoluminescence spectra show near band emission peak at 3.434 -3.442 eV. The film grown at 800 ºC shows broad yellow luminescence peak at 2.2 eV. Low temperature photoluminescence spectra show near band emission at 3.483 eV along with defect related emissions. Raman spectra exhibit blue shift due to compressive strain in the film. An in-plane orientation relationship is found to be [1 -1 00] GaN || [1 2-1 0] sapphire and [-1 -1 2 3] GaN || [0 0 0 1] sapphire for semipolar GaN on m-plane sapphire substrates. The surface morphology of semipolar GaN film is found to be reasonably smooth with pits on the surface. Room temperature photoluminescence shows the near band emission (NBE) at 3.432 eV, which is slightly blue shifted compared to the bulk GaN. The Raman E2 (high) peak position observed at 569.1 cm1. Chapter 4 deals with the fabrication and characterizations of Au/nonpolar and Au/semipolar GaN schottky diodes. The temperature-dependent current–voltage measurements have been used to determine the current mechanisms in Schottky diodes fabricated on nonpolar a-plane GaN and semipolar GaN epilayers. The barrier height (φb) and ideally factor (η) estimated from the thermionic emission model are found to be temperature dependent in nature indicate the deviations from the thermionic emission (TE) transport mechanism. Low temperature I-V characteristics of Au/ GaN Schottky diode show temperature independent tunnelling parameter. Barrier heights calculated from XPS are found to be 0.96 eV and 1.13 eV for Au/nonpolar GaN and Au/semipolar GaN respectively. Chapter 5 demonstrates the growth of InN on r-sapphire substrates with and without GaN buffer layer. InN film and nanostructures are grown on r-sapphire without GaN buffer layer and they are highly oriented along (0002) direction. The electron microscopy study confirms the nanostructures are vertically aligned and highly oriented along the (0001) direction. The Raman studies of InN nanostructures show the SO modes along with the other possible Raman modes. The band gap of InN nanostructures is found to be 0.82 eV. InN grown with a-plane GaN buffer shows nonpolar orientated growth. Growth temperature dependent studies of nonpolar a-plane InN epilayers are carried out. The valence band offset value is calculated to be 1.31 eV for nonpolar a-plane InN/GaN heterojunctions. The heterojunctions form in the type-I straddling configuration with a conduction band offsets of 1.41 eV. Chapter 6 deals with the temperature dependent I-V characteristics of the nonpolar a-plane (1 1 -2 0) InN/GaN heterostructures. The measured values of barrier height and ideality factor from the TE model show the temperature dependent variation. The double Gaussian distribution has mean barrier height values ( ϕb ) of 1.17 and 0.69 eV with standard deviation (σs ) of 0.17 and 0.098 V, respectively. The modified Richardson plot ln (Is/T2)-q2σ2/2k2T2 ) versus q/kT in the temperature range of 350 – 500 K, yielded the Richardson constant of 19.5 A/cm2 K2 which is very close to the theoretical value of 24 A/cm2 K2 for n-type GaN. The tunneling parameters E0 found to be temperature independent at low temperature range (150 –300 K). Chapter 7 concludes with the summary of present investigations and the scope for future work.

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