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This study sought to explore some of the ways in which assessment itself needs to be treated as a feature of equity and transformation in post-apartheid South Africa. How can the classroom become a level playing field for all, not just in terms of admission and changes to the overall composition of the student body, as well as staffing, but in relation to the curriculum itself, of which assessment is a part? In a multilingual, multicultural country like South Africa, which also carries a lot of political baggage, one has to agree that assessing all students in the same way does not mean, assessing all students equally. To assess all students in the same way, regardless of their proficiency in English and only in the mode of writing, is to ignore the wealth of diversity and potential among our student population. The ESL students in this study repeatedly indicated that they cannot express themselves adequately in writing in English and that "the expression of the examiners" and the "wording of the questions" pose a problem in the written assessments. They often find out after a paper "what a question meant" or what the examiner intended. EFL students too experienced problems with "ambiguity" and "unclear expression" of the examiners. This qualitative study introduced an oral component into the present tertiary assessment structures in Science. The private nature of the written assessments does not permit interaction between student and examiner or invigilator during an examination. This means that both student and assessor in turn have to rely on their own interpretation of the written word without consulting with each other. Oral assessments on the other hand, permit live interaction. Both candidate and assessor can seek clarity from each other. Rather than grappling with understanding of each others' English, the focus can rightfully move to assessing the student's knowledge of content. As the study endeavoured to devise a relatively new form of assessment for the South African context, it required tools and techniques that would provide for exploration and that would allow for modification along the way. An action research approach was therefore used. This study took on what might be described as a 'hybrid' version of action research in order to investigate how as an instructor in Language Education, I could bring about change in assessment in Science. Individual and group oral assessments were conducted with undergraduate students at two tertiary institutions, viz. a technikon and a university, in KwaZulu-Natal. The assessments were conducted in three phases. The first phase of the assessments adapted oral assessment practices used by South African and international Science educators. The second and third phases investigated 'closed' structures devised for the individual and group oral assessments within a South African tertiary context, respectively. After each phase of the assessments, feedback from the participants was analysed and comments and criticisms were addressed. Collaboration with the participants yielded harmonious working relationships, successful administration of the assessments, and valuable contributions from the students and assessors, especially with regard to the design of the oral assessment grid. Five main sources of data were generated in this study, viz. from the focus group discussions with the assessors and the students, the student and assessor questionnaires, and the assessment sessions. Triangulation, and more specifically, data triangulation was employed to ensure reliability and validity or consistency and comparability of the oral assessments. Incorporating an oral component to the assessments meant that students could reap the benefit of the higher mark in either the written or the oral mode. Students were grateful that the assessments "tested two different sides of a person" and that if they could not express themselves adequately in writing, they could "fall back on the orals". Assessors were unanimous that "apart from promoting understanding, the oral assessments provided many other benefits for assessors and students". They therefore hailed the mixed-mode of assessments as a "win-win situation" for all the participants. The study concludes with recommendations and implications for the reform of language policy and assessment practices in tertiary education, and the need for further work in tertiary classrooms where teachers embark upon action research. / Thesis (Ph.D.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2004.

This thesis reports on a comparison of four genres of scientific writing: the research article, university textbook, popular science article and science books for children. The comparison is based on a functional linguistic analysis of what are taken to be exemplary texts from these genres and focuses on the levels of register (or context of situation), genre (or context of culture) and ideology (loosely used to mean power relations reflected in and achieved through discourse). The textbooks and research article examined are found to be similar in register but distinct at the level of genre. Allowing for the difference in age of the readers. the study also finds broad similarity between textbooks and science hooks for children at both the levels of register and genre. Differences between popular science texts and the other three genres are particularly marked at the interpersonal level, and can be explained in terms of the popular science texts in the study being primarily news genres. Specifically, two of the popular texts in the study are issues reports (characterised by White 1997 as 'the discoveries of some authorised source'), while one is an opinion piece. The basis of the examination of ideological differences between the four genres is from the perspective of how each genre establishes objectivity, what each regards as constituting a fact, and power relations between reader and writer. Research science achieves objectivity by universalising propositions by removing association with people, time and place (Latour and Woolgar 1979). The research article functions to persuade readers (who represent the powerful research community) to accept knowledge claims (Myers ) 989). This persuasion must be accomplished through an appearance of objectivity through removal of human participants and without the more usual interpersonal devices such as attltudinal texis. Propositions become fact when they are accepted, and cited as uncontroversial by the research community. Like the research article, textbooks appear objective by removal of association with people. However, by contrast with research articles, writers of textbooks are more powerful than their readers are. Textbook writers, in summarising all information accepted as fact by the research community, are representative and mouthpiece of that powerful community. In privileging facts (scientists' ideas) over scientists themselves, textbooks extend the power differential noted by Myers (1989) between research community and individual researcher. Textbooks reify the fact and further bury the individual, containing only generic references to scientists. Science books for children, like textbooks, contain only generic references to scientists. They do, however, try to engage readers through illustrations and by identifying readers with scientists. Popular science texts are distinct from the other three genres in establishing writer objectivity through the journalistic means of attributing ideas and utterances to authoritative human participants in the text. Popular texts, because they report on findings that the research community has not yet endorsed as fact, are distinct from research articles and textbooks in representing findings as provisional and even controversial, and thus provide an insight into science as a social activity that is absent from the other genres. This research finds little evidence that popular science represents a simpler or more accessible form than textbooks. Indeed the similarity in register and genre between textbooks and science books for children calls into question the commonly-held conception of factual texts as inherently more difficult than forms such as narrative. This research indicates that research articles and textbooks are target forms for tertiary students and students in the later years of secondary school. Motivated by this, the researcher suggests that importing features of popular science writing into textbooks would be counter-productive. Instead she suggests a greater role for popular science texts themselves at secondary and at tertiary level. In providing an insight into scientists as people and the social nature of how facts are established, popular science texts can go some way to dispelling the mystique of science as authoritative and difficult. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of Natal, Durban, 2001.

Knowledge production or research in South Africa, as elsewhere in the world, does not occur within 'innocent' spaces devoid of personal, social, political, economic and cultural contexts (Singh, 2000). This study explores knowledge production at the level of policy. It questions in the review of the school's curriculum policy in general, and the science curriculum policy in particular: What becomes new? What is different? What remains the same? What is the policy problem? Who is the policy population that is the target of such policies? Why is there such a universal dimension of what should be taught in science, and hence what science is? Why is the conceptual knowledge of the science curriculum and the conception of scientific literacy around the world much the same? At the level of research, what is the most illuminative way to seek answers to these questions? The study explores the theoretical, methodological and contextual constructs that frame the conception of scientific literacy. This thesis presents a critical analysis of the policy process and policy documents for two reform periods in South Africa. The theoretical constructs deployed are policy archaeology, ideology, inclusivity, governmentality and professionalisation. I argue in this study that the latter two constructs are regularities that are necessary for the emergence of the policy problem, they shape the social construction of the policy problem and they constitute and shape the range of policy solutions. I posit that these regularities are necessary for the social construction of the policy problem in both the C2005 and the RNCS processes. These regularities intersect in a complex, grid-like fashion on the policy-problem axis. These intersecting regularities makes it possible for the policy problem to emerge as a problem, constructs the problem, and constitutes the problem as an 'object' of social visibility. I argue that ideological shifts in the conception of scientific literacy are constituted by these two regularities. I conclude the thesis by drawing out five significant policy lessons: (i) An 'ideal' that makes intellectual sense but does not fit conditions in society can exacerbate the problems it seeks to solve; (ii) 'Change is only as effective as the smallest unit': in the policy-making arena the smallest unit is the policy writers, in the arena of practice it is the classroom teacher; (iii) Timing determines what is possible: the socio-political climate of 1994 resulted in some important silences- especially from conservatives and scientists; (iv) In the science policy documents the definition of scientific literacy is epistemological at two levels: the idea that scientific literacy can be defined and constitutes individual knowledge,and the view of knowledge in the policy documents; and (v) The policy process and the policy documents challenged hegemony of structure and the epistemology of knowledge. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Westville, 2005.

This study explores how Lesotho primary school teachers understand and interpret problem-solving (PS) and how they teach and support it. Observation schedules and semi-structured interviews were used to collect data from classrooms, teachers and learners. The findings revealed that teachers have considerable understanding of (PS) and value it but are not teaching it. Teachers attribute this to their lack of knowledge, the difficult conditions in their schools, policy constraints (such as assessment) and their own habits and behaviours. However, the data also indicated that teachers, with support, can successfully design and teach appropriate lessons in their schools, raising issues about their knowledge, beliefs, identity and structures. / Theses (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2005.

This study describes, discusses and analyses the Rwandan lower secondary school teachers’ responses to the introduction of inquiry as a teaching approach in the science curriculum as one of the changes that the curriculum in Rwanda has undergone through in the aftermath of the 1994 genocide. The study investigates the science teachers’ understanding of inquiry-based science teaching, their attitudes towards the introduction of inquiry into the science curriculum, the activities they are engaged in with regard to inquiry-based science teaching and learning, the factors influencing their current teaching practices and their perceptions about what may be done for a better implementation of inquiry-based science teaching. Guided by a pragmatic research approach, I believed that collecting diverse types of data would provide a deeper understanding of the research problem and therefore adopted a two phases’ sequential explanatory mixed methods design. During the first phase, data were collected by means of a survey questionnaire administered to a purposeful sample of 200 science teachers at lower secondary school in Rwanda. Findings from the survey informed the second phase consisting of data collection by means of semi-structured one-to-one interviews with 15 purposefully selected teachers from the sample used in the first phase then supplemented by a contextual observation in their schools. The data from the questionnaire were subject to a descriptive statistical analysis while data from interviews were subject to analysis involving transcribing and reading interview transcripts, coding and categorizing information, identifying patterns, and interpreting. The data analysis produced five main assertions providing answers to the research questions. Participant teachers displayed varying understanding of what inquiry-based science teaching is, associating it with a number of its characteristics such as a learner centred teaching approach mostly based on experiments and practical work. There were a few teachers who did not have accepted understandings of inquiry-teaching. Furthermore, teachers had a positive attitude towards the introduction of inquiry and favoured the change even though they indicated a number of factors preventing them from adequately implementing the new teaching approach. As for their practices, traditional classroom activities were more frequently used than inquiry-based activities and when they made use of inquiry, they followed a specific order of activities that led to a more structured type of inquiry. The study further identified a number of factors influencing both positively and negatively the implementation of inquiry. The positive aspect was that they find teaching through inquiry more enjoyable while the shortage of time, the lack of teaching resources and the lack of confidence associated with inadequate training, influenced negatively the way they implemented inquiry-based teaching. Teachers highlighted a number of interventions they felt would make the implementation of inquiry based teaching more effective. The improvement of resources provision to schools and the implementation of adequate professional development programmes were the most highlighted. Despite the several impediments to the implementation of effective use of inquiry, teachers were optimistic towards the future of science teaching and learning in Rwanda. It is envisaged these findings will be valuable to a wide range of audiences including science teachers, curriculum developers, science teacher educators as they may inform them about the implementation of the new curricula that require teachers to focus on inquiry given the controversy surrounding this issue in science education. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

This thesis presents results of a secondary analysis of South African Grade 8 learners' responses to the TIMSS 1999 Population 2 Science questions, and the results of a test and group interviews with learners from three high schools in Pietermaritzburg. The study is motivated by the need to understand the reasons for the poor performance of SA Grade 8 natural science learners in the TIMSS 1999 study. The aim of the study was to identify possible misconceptions held and errors made by SA science learners and to pinpoint pos sible causes and sources of these misconceptions and errors. An analysis of the SA learners' responses contained in the TIMSS 1999 Population 2 data and the test results from the Pietermaritzburg schools was used to identify possible misconceptions held and errors made by SA learners on certain science topics. The questions used in the Pietermaritzburg study were selected from the TIMSS 1999 population 2 science quest ions. The questions were selected based on perceived minimal levels of guessing by learners when answering these questions in the TIMSS 1999 study. The three schools selected for inclusion in this study in Pietermaritzburg were chosen based on their former classification as Indian, Coloured and Black schools. The majority of pupils at each of these three schools still reflect this racial composition that was in place at the time the TIMSS study was conducted. The Pietermaritzburg data was collected by administering a written test consisting of selected TIMSS 1999 science questions to a randomly selected group of ten learners at each school follow ed by interviews with the learners and the head of the Science Department at each school. Learner ' notebooks and the year planners used by teachers at the three schools were analysed primarily to check if these were in line with the SA intended curriculum and to check for any possible sources of misconceptions. The analysis of the data was guided by the constructivist theory and the conceptual framework used in the TIMSS data. The TIMSS conceptual framework focused on the intended, the implemented and the achieved curriculum. The study found that learners hold misconceptions on different concepts of the natural science curriculum. Some causes of misconceptions and errors among learners were identified. Some of the misconceptions highlighted indicate for instance that learners believe that boiling water is a form of a chemical reaction; a seed develops from a root; proteins are the same as vitamins, proteins and vitamins provide energy for the body. Some possible causes of misconceptions and errors among learners were identified. These possible causes of misconceptions and errors are varied with some for example, linked to poor content coverage by teachers, learners' everyday experience, the lack of learning resources and materials at some schools. / Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of computer technology on teaching Natural Science (NS) in grade 8 classes. Computer technology is the powerful and influential tool in teaching and learning situation. When it is used appropriately it will support the NS educators in their teaching of NS. Indeed computer technology could be used to redress the inequalities of the past, especially in the teaching of Natural Science as they offer the educators whether in rural or urban area a common base of knowledge and experience. The term computer technology is used interchangeable with the term Information and Communication Technology. The term computer technology has the different meanings from the different authors but in these meanings that they gave, there are similarities that computer technology is a tool used for developing, implementing and evaluating the teachings aids. There are different ideas about the impact of computer technology on teaching NS because other authors in their studies state that it has a positive impact yet others state the negative impact of computer technology. Those they state the positive impact look at a dimension of the developing the teaching skills, creative thinking and problem solving skills in education. The other authors state the negative impact of computer technology look on the dimension that it is too early to conclude that computer technology has a good impact because some of the educators in the teaching field are not well trained to teach using computers. They also state that computer technology will have negative impact on teaching because in the schools where these educators worked there is no follow up after they attended the workshops to look that are they do what they are trained to do. The findings show that computer technology has a positive impact because 75% educators have a full understanding of computer technology and they apply in their teaching and learning of NS. This means that these results are supporting ideas of these authors that they were stating that computer technology has positive impact. There were few educators that they have no understanding of teaching using computers so they have a negative attitude of computer uses in teaching. These educators are supporting the views of the authors that in their studies they shown the negative side of computer technology in teaching. This study concludes that the Dinaledi project and the department of education must make it sure that they do the follow up that computers are used purposeful to schools that they have them. The trainings workshops must be long so these educators will acquire these teaching skills thoroughly. / Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of Kwazulu-Natal, 2006.

The purpose of this study was to describe the performance of the South African Grade 8 learners in Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 2003 science test, to explore the translatability of TIMSS 2003 science items into isiZulu without significant loss of meaning, and to explore the strategies used by isiZulu-speaking learners when answering questions in the TIMSS 2003 test. Thirty six isiZulu-speaking learners were tested using written test questions taken from the science test in the TIMSS 2003. The degree to which a sample of 36 learners represented their understanding of the questions in a written test compared to the level of understanding that could be elicited by an interview is presented in this study. The findings of this study are presented, interpreted and discussed using Pollitt & Ahmed's (2001) model of question answering process as well as other relevant literature. The key findings of this study are as follows : • the South African Grade 8 learners performed very poorly on TIMSS 2003 science test, • close translation of TIMSS 2003 science items into isiZulu is possible if conducted with care by expert teachers, • the language of the test had some effect on isiZulu-speaking learners' performance on TIMSS 2003 science test, • the strategies used by isiZulu-speaking learners when answering science questions included: • translating the question into isiZulu before trying to answer it, • choosing an answer containing a word/term common in the question stem and in the options, • choosing the answer containing a familiar/unfamiliar word in the options, •guessing , •looking at patterns of previous choices, •'picture memory', and •'general knowledge'. When Pollitt & Ahmed's (2001) model of question answering is applied to isiZuluspeaking learners, two 'new' phases are introduced. The findings of this study suggest that language factors are embedded within other factors, importantly, the appropriate level of cognitive proficiency to enable correct answering of science questions. The findings of this study further suggest the need for development of cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) in both English and isiZulu languages, or in one of them. / Thesis (M.Ed.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

The value of teachers' perceptions of science is noted, given that teachers play an active part in implementing curricula. The possibility that teacher's perceptions of science may be different from the image of science portrayed in the official curriculum is considered. Given that during the apartheid era, education was dominated both politically and culturally by one group, objections to the ideological-cultural dimension of the official curriculum were expected. An exposition of the philosophical basis for science teaching and curriculum development is attempted. A process model of curriculum is adopted as it is seen as more effective in portraying the political context of curriculum practice. It is argued that both curriculum practice and the notion of being "scientific" are not objective but depend on the dominant culture. Therefore, there is a need to be open-minded and eclectic about the notion of being "scientific". An attempt is made to identify teachers ' perceptions rather than test the teachers' perceptions against a given norm. In this context a qualitative approach is attempted in identifying teachers perceptions of science by using unstructured and open-ended interviews. A content analysis of the overarching philosophical view in prescribed books and syllabus documents is attempted. Findings are that , broadly speaking teachers perceptions of science were not dissimilar from those in the official curriculum when the study was conducted. In making recommendations for curriculum development it is noted that teachers views need to be accommodated. However including teachers in curriculum development should go hand in hand with workshops to raise teachers awareness o f the issues involved. It is also argued that there is a need f or separate curricula for those who go on to be scientists as well as those who need science for their general education. / Thesis (M.Ed.) - University of Natal, Durban, 1994.