Studies suggest that a potential misalignment between assessment and grading practices in reporting secondary student academic achievement has negatively impacted students since grades may not truly reflect actual achievement. Accordingly, the purpose of the current study was to compare secondary teachers' use of academic and nonacademic factors when reporting student achievement before and after professional development on assessment and grading practices. Following change theory, the study investigated the efficacy of employing professional development as a means of influencing more standard and appropriate practices among secondary teachers with regard to using academic and nonacademic factors when employing standards-based reporting to determine grades. The single-group repeated measures design used a random sample of 39 secondary teachers (6th-12th grade) in a nonpublic school in the Midwest who completed online adaptations of the Teacher Survey on Grading Practices (TSGP) and McREL surveys. Chi-square analyses of the TSGP indicated that there was a significant difference in the way teachers used academic and nonacademic factors in determining grades after professional development. Specifically, improvement and mastery, two academic criteria, increased after the intervention, whereas all nonacademic factors on the survey decreased in the amount of weight teachers gave them in determining a summative grade for students. The results of this study led to the conclusion that professional development was an effective means to influence change in grading practices. The study contributes to social change by informing professional development models that promote meaningful conversations about the nature of student achievement, systematic assessment practices, and how to most accurately and equitably assign grades.

Over the past decade, the number of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in public schools in a northeastern US state has almost tripled in number. Given a lack of preservice training on autism topics, many beginning special education teachers are ill prepared to meet the challenges of working in classrooms for students with ASD and current induction practices do not specifically support special education teachers. The perceived effectiveness of induction programs for beginning teachers in self-contained classrooms for students with ASD were examined in this phenomonological inquiry grounded in theories of adult learning. Through semi structured interviews that were analyzed using a modified modified Stevick-Colaizzi-Keen method, 7 beginning special education teachers in 3 types of public school settings discussed their perceptions regarding induction supports and the challenges they faced. Participants reported mentoring as the most effective induction component. Challenges were related to paraprofessionals, paperwork, student behaviors, and parent communication. The teachers expressed a need for induction activities relevant to the responsibilities of special education teachers and contexually relevant professional development. School districts need to understand challenges faced by beginning teachers in self-contained classrooms for students with ASD and develop induction components that support teachers in the autism field. The social implications for creating relevant induction programs are great; supporting beginning special educators in self-contained classrooms for students with ASD will retain effective teachers and may have a positive influence on student achievement and long term outcomes for students with ASD.

There is a lack of understanding regarding how sensemaking could be incorporated into a professional development program to improve teacher quality and student achievement. The lived experiences of high school English language development teachers as they interpret English language development and one state's high school exit exam instructional policies were explored in this phenomenological study. The conceptual framework that supported this study is based on the theory of sensemaking, the processes by which educators interpret and implement policies. The participants were English language development teachers of English learners who have not yet passed the exit exam. Data were collected through in-depth interviews and artifact collection. An analysis of participants' responses was conducted which lead to the disclosure of themes related to sensemaking. The findings of the study indicated teachers' interpretations and implementations of instructional policies are not in line with the intentions of the policies. Contributing to positive social change, this study provided a better understanding of teacher sensemaking and its potential to transform professional development, improve teacher quality, and increase student achievement. The study includes recommendations for professional development programs including developing standards-based outcomes, supervising policy implementation, defining roles and responsibilities, and building teacher capacity.

Early childhood (EC) administrators could be the most important contributors to quality experiences in EC settings; they are also responsible for the caliber of experiences for children and staff. A quality EC program is licensed and accredited with administrators who have professional preparation and work experience and can lead and manage EC programs. There are the few direct educational paths to become an EC administrator. This lack of standardization influences the quality of leadership and organizational climate in EC settings. The purpose of this qualitative study as reflected in the research questions was to explore the experiences of EC administrators regarding their educational paths, their views of themselves as transformational leaders, and the influence of their leadership on their organizational climate. Prior research on the subject of leadership practices in EC suggests that Burns' transformational leadership is most beneficial, but this leadership style has not been explored in detail in EC settings. This phenomenological study included interviews of six EC administrators about their educational paths, their views as transformational leaders, and how their leadership influenced the organizational climate in their setting. Data were analyzed for themes that emerged. Findings suggested the need for streamlined undergraduate and graduate coursework. Implications for positive social change are the potential for improved quality of programs and for the support needed for early childhood leadership.

Through the lens of Bandura's social-cognitive theory, which proposes that one's sense of self-efficacy can foster positive beliefs, the purpose of this descriptive, quantitative study was to determine whether the attitudes held by general education teachers have an influence on their perceptions of inclusion. General education teachers' beliefs in their abilities regarding teaching in inclusive classrooms may have an influence on the success of inclusion. This study examined the difference in attitudes toward inclusion between elementary school general education teachers whose previous teaching experience was with solely general education students but who now teach in an inclusive classroom, and those whose only teaching experience has been in the inclusive classroom. Eighty one general education teachers from public elementary schools in a suburban school district completed the Scale of Teachers' Attitudes Toward Inclusive Classrooms (STATIC). Results from independent-samples t-tests and Mann-Whitney difference tests showed no significant statistical difference between mean STATIC scores and indicated the attitudes of both groups were positive towards inclusion. The acknowledgement of current teacher attitudes towards inclusion promotes positive social change by serving as a rationale for other school districts to create professional development opportunities. These opportunities will allow general education teachers to become better prepared in supporting and educating special needs students in their classrooms.

In response to its failure to meet state mandated proficiency standards in reading and mathematics over the past three years, a rural, Title I high school (LS) in South Carolina purchased and implemented the commercially available literacy program READ 180 (R180) for the 2008-2009 academic year. While previous research reported by Scholastic, Incorporated (R180) had provided support for the use of R180 in improving literacy, these studies have been criticized recently for their lack of comparable control groups, experimenter bias and lack of data from other content areas such as mathematics. The purpose of this study was to determine the relative effectiveness of R180 in improving reading and math performance when compared with traditional high school English course instruction in a group of ninth grade students at LS. The theoretical framework for this study was based on Vygotsky's cognitive developmental theory which emphasizes the role of language in learning in all content areas. A group of below average reading ability students was assigned by LS to the R180 instructional class while a second group of average ability students was assigned to the traditional English course (TRAD). Both groups were pre and post tested in reading and math using the state-sponsored Measures of Academic Progress (MAP) standardized achievement test. Dependent samples t-tests and Analysis of Covariance were used to analyze the data. The results indicated statistically significant improvements in both math and reading scores for the TRAD group but not for the R180 group. This study has implications for positive social change in the form of independent, empirically-based data to both inform the administration of LS in future decision making regarding funding for the very costly R180 program as well as contributing to the overall database on R180's effectiveness.

This correlation study focused on the lack of understanding of the relationship between social self-image "face" and conflict styles among adult employees on school campuses. An individual's social self-image may involve concerns for the social representation of oneself, another individual, or a relationship. Limited research pertaining to the degree face concerns affect conflict styles within school communities is a problem for school administrators because conflict styles can influence conflict outcomes and impact workplace quality on school campuses. This study relied on Ting-Toomey's face-negotiation theory, which proposes that individuals prefer conflict styles based upon face concerns. Research questions explored correlations between self-face, other-face, and mutual-face concerns with dominating, emotional expressive, neglect, integrating, obliging, compromising, third-party help, and avoiding conflict styles. The sample consisted of 192 adults employed on 3 school campuses located in a large metropolitan region in the western region of the United States. Participants completed a survey by recalling a conflict with an adult coworker. Participants responded to items measuring social self-image and behavioral responses to conflict. Results were analyzed using multiple regression tests. Findings suggest that preferences for conflict styles were very different in the presence of self-face than in the presence of other-face and mutual-face, and face-concerns were either weak predictors or nonpredictors for avoiding and third-party help. This study has the potential to enhance workplace quality on school campuses in that it suggests mutual-face concerns for relationships associate with cooperative conflict styles that tend to promote constructive conflict outcomes.

Less than 50% of students from an inner-city high school in a southeastern US state who took the GATEWAY mathematics exam (2001-2007) earned a passing score on the first attempt, prompting teachers at the school to begin a summer intervention program based on Bandura's Self Efficacy Theory, to help them succeed on a subsequent reexamination. The program featured (a) extended learning time, (b) mastery learning, (c) direct instruction, (d) single-sex grouping, and (e) teacher collaboration. A survey of recent scholarly literature indicated that these 5 characteristics positively impact student learning and performance. The goal was to increase student understanding of fundamental mathematics concepts and by doing so increase their confidence in their ability to do well on standardized assessments. To test the efficacy of this intervention, this study used a quasi-experimental pre-post comparison group design to compare five academic indicators---GATEWAY exam scores, grade point averages, attendance, failed classes, and final averages in future mathematics courses---for students who participated in summer intervention programs (treatment group) with outcome data from students who did not participate (control group). A multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) was used to determine whether there was a significant difference in outcomes between students in the treatment and control groups. Findings revealed an overall significant effect of the summer intervention program on the five academic indicators (F = 5.024, p < 0.001). Univariate F tests indicated that only student GATEWAY scores were affected by participation in the summer intervention program. This study contributes to social change by providing evidence that short-term intervention programs may help struggling students pass high stakes tests such as the GATEWAY examination.

The concepts of professional learning communities and organizational disciplines support staff development and leadership that lead to sustainable systems. Little research has examined the ability of rural schools to achieve sustainable systems. This quantitative design study considered the relationships between predictor variables of administrative roles and staff development and the criterion variable of Response to Intervention (RtI) implementation level. Administrator roles included planning and scheduling training, participating in training, planning implementation, building knowledge and commitment, selecting RtI teams, participating on teams, promoting parental involvement, evaluating RtI, and implementing follow-up and targeted training. Staff development practices addressed commitment and support, team processes, the three-tiered system, selfassessments, evidence based practices, and monitoring and action planning. A stepwise regression was used to analyze data based on survey responses of 131 RtI team members in rural schools in the western United States. Results indicated high correlations between level of implementation and training in evidence-based practices, self-assessments, and monitoring and action-planning. Leadership roles related to building knowledge and commitment, selecting RtI team members, promoting parental involvement, and including RtI in evaluations were strong predictors of overall level of implementation as well. This study may have a significant and positive impact on social change by identifying areas for training and leadership focus. This may reduce the misallocation of funds and negative perceptions toward RtI, leading to higher quality, targeted training, better use of leadership time, and increased satisfaction and sustainability.

The No Child Left Behind education act mandates that school districts develop supplemental educational service programs for students not demonstrating mathematical proficiency on state standardized math assessments. Yet there is limited understanding of issues related to supplemental educational service math programs. The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate a local after school math program to offer insight on the low math achievement for economically disadvantaged students involved in the program. Constructivist theories of math reform and education for economically disadvantaged students and English language learners guided this study of 10 teachers and 15 of their students in a diverse urban elementary school in the northeastern United States. Two questions guided this research: One on the mathematical achievement of economically disadvantaged students in the local after school math program; the other on the nature of professional development for teachers of supplemental educational service programs. Data from observations and teacher interviews were analyzed using constructivist grounded theory coding procedures. Data revealed themes centered on program structures, student attributes, instructional strategies, professional collaboration, curriculum, and professional development. Findings further revealed educational communities can increase student math achievement through strategic teacher training. The final project addresses social change with the creation of a research supported action plan for teacher professional development within the local supplemental educational math program. This research is significant to school leaders in the advancement of supplemental educational service math programs for academically diverse learners.