The environment is abundant with visual information. Each moment, this information competes for representation in the brain. From billboards and pop-up ads to smart phones and flat screens, in modern society our attention is constantly drawn from one salient object to the next. Learning how to focus on the objects that are most important for the current task is a major developmental hurdle. Fortunately, rewards help us to learn what is important by providing feedback signals to the brain. Sometimes, in adolescence for example, reward seeking can become the pre-potent response. This can ultimately lead to risky and impulsive behaviors that have devastating consequences. Until recently, little has been known about how rewards operate to influence the focus of attention. In this document, I first demonstrate the robustness of various behavioral paradigms designed to measure reward processing in vision. I found that even mundane rewards, such as images of money, are effective enough to prime the attentional system on the basis of value. Remarkably, this effect extended to images of Monopoly money. This observation suggests that whole classes of visual stimuli, such as food, pornography, commercial logos, corporate brands, or money, each with its own reward salience value, are likely vying for representation in the brain. This work has implications for the growing digital economy as it suggests that novel value systems, such as the digital currency Bitcoin, could eventually become as psychologically relevant as physical currency provided sufficient use and exposure. Likewise, this work has implications for gamification in the industrial setting. Next, I examined the sensitivity of the system to make optimal economic decisions. When faced with an economic choice normative theories of decision-making suggest that the economic actor will choose the response that affords the greatest expected utility. Contrary to this account, I developed a new behavioral paradigm (reward contingent capture) and reveal that the attentional homunculus is a fuzzy mathematician. Specifically, I found that low-level attentional processes conform to the same probability distortions observed in prospect theory. This finding supports a unified value learning mechanism across several domains of cognition and converges with evidence from monkey models. Then, I demonstrate the influence of rewards on high-order search parameters. I found that images of money can implicitly encourage observers to preferentially adopt one of two search strategies – one that values salience versus one that values goals. Together, my results expose two distinct ways in which the very same rewards can affect attentional behavior – by tuning the salience of specific features and by shaping global search mode settings. Lastly, I draw from my empirical results to present a unified model of the manifold role of rewards on visual attention. This model makes clear predictions for clinical applications of rewarded attention paradigms because it incorporates a dimension of complexity upon which learning processes can operate on attention. Thus, future work should acknowledge how individual traits such as developmental trajectory, impulsivity, and risk-seeking factors differentially interact with low- and high-level attentional processes. In sum, this document puts forward the notion that rewards serve a compelling role in visual awareness. The key point however is not that rewards can have an effect on attention but that due to the nature of visual processing, reward signals are likely always tuning attention. In this way we can consider reward salience an attentional currency. This means then that deciding where to attend is a matter of gains and losses.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate TAGteach as a training procedure to increase the fluency of three dance movements in a multiple baseline across behaviors design with 4 students of dance. Target behaviors included a pirouette/turn, kick, and a leap/jump, respective of the level of the class. A dance instructor was trained to implement the TAGteach procedure by the primary researcher. The targeted dance movements remained at a stable level during baseline and improved sequentially for each participant following the introduction of the TAGteach training. Implications for future research are discussed.

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) affects the lives of 1 in 54 children in the United States. By definition, these children often have social communication deficits as well as restrictive and repetitive behaviors that are socially isolating. Inclusion of participants with disabilities such as ASD in classroom or group settings with peers is a high-priority goal for building skills that lead to independent living and higher quality of life for all. Balancing an individual’s class or group participation is not always easy with different levels of social skills, however. In a classroom, this can translate to difficulty in knowing how to participate in a way that is equal to that of their peers—oftentimes children with ASD do not realize that others also need a turn to speak or that other children are not as interested in their restricted ¬interests as they are. We used differential reinforcement and self-monitoring within an existing token system to reduce excess participation in group settings for some individuals, with the goal of better balancing opportunities for all group members to participate. Called "Stack the Deck," this simple intervention allowed for more uninterrupted instruction time with fewer talk outs and meltdowns from adolescents with ASD. Our intervention occurred in a clinical setting, a once-weekly social skills group utilizing the PEERS Social Skills manualized intervention for adolescents with ASD. Groups ran for 12–14 weeks in duration and taught skills such as how to make friends, how to enter and exit conversations, as well as how to host "get-togethers." Our sample size was 33, with 26 males and 7 females. These participants met criteria for autism spectrum disorder and/or had significant social impairment, and had age-appropriate verbal and cognitive abilities by parent report (later measured within the study). Across our A-B intervention, we saw changes over time when it came to participation rates for over-responders (participants who attempted to respond far above the group average during baseline) and under-responders (participants who attempted to respond at rates far below the group average during baseline), with no changes (the desired result) for individuals who were already participating at an appropriate rate. Over-responders showed the most significant changes. A secondary finding of reduced talk-outs overall within the groups was also found. These results suggest that a fairly simple group behavioral intervention was able to produce a group environment more conducive to direct instruction that has direct application to inclusive classrooms as well as clinical environments. Further research can determine if the effects within individuals seen in one setting carry over to others.

The purpose of this research is to evaluate and compare the structural performance of composite floor slabs reinforced with 6 x 6 W1.4/W1.4 welded wire fabric (WWF) and STRUX 90/40 synthetic macro fibers. Slabs were subjected to flexural strength tests and concentrated load tests while monitoring load, steel deck strains, and deflections. Test results obtained from this test program were also compared to results from a similar test program conducted in 2001. Tests were also performed to obtain the average residual-strength of the fiber-reinforced concrete using the ASTM C 1399 (2003) standard test. All slabs were loaded until a complete failure was observed. The observed failure loads were compared to failure loads calculated by design guides published by the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) and the Steel Deck Institute (SDI). The flexural strength tests showed that composite slabs reinforced with synthetic macro fibers and WWF exhibited strength and behavior that was almost identical. The observed values of strength were also within the range that was predicted by ASCE prediction models. At a typical office design load of 70 psf, all slabs exhibited midspan deflections that were much smaller than those necessary for serviceability requirements. The concentrated load tests also showed that the observed strength of all composite slabs tested was above those values predicted by ASCE and SDI models. However, an effective comparison between the WWF-reinforced and synthetic macro fiber-reinforced slab was difficult due to a poor shear bond in the latter slab prior to testing. The results of the ASTM C 1399 test verified the ability of concrete reinforced with synthetic macro fibers to meet average residual-strength values recommended by the SDI. / Master of Science

Estudos sobre choques sinalizados e sobre respostas de observação têm demonstrado sistematicamente que estímulos correlacionados com ausência de choques ou apresentação de reforço mantêm as respostas que os produzem, enquanto que estímulos correlacionados com apresentação de choques ou ausência de reforço não as mantêm. No entanto, esses estudos raramente têm incluído contingências de punição que permitam comparações diretas, deixando de lado as respostas de observação de estímulos discriminativos de punição. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os efeitos do ganho (reforço: REF), a manutenção (extinção: EXT) e a perda (punição: PUN) de pontos, dependente e independentemente de uma resposta efetiva, sobre respostas de observação oculares de adultos. Os participantes foram expostos a uma tarefa de discriminação visual em esquema múltiplo com dois componentes, cada um com um estímulo visual diferente associado. Usando um equipamento de rastreamento ocular, o estímulo de cada componente foi apresentado apenas enquanto eram registradas fixações na região em que estava programado para ser apresentado. Em cada fase foram comparadas duas consequências da resposta efetiva (REF vs. EXT, EXT vs. PUN e REF vs. PUN) e foram mensuradas a frequência e duração das fixações nos estímulos de cada contingência. Para os participantes do Grupo Experimental os pontos foram dependentes das respostas efetivas e para os participantes do Grupo Acoplado os pontos foram independentes de qualquer resposta e foram apresentados conforme tinham sido obtidos pelos participantes do Grupo Experimental. Os participantes dos dois grupos mantiveram a resposta de observação aos estímulos, embora sem mostrar uma preferência sistemática pelo estímulo da contingência mais favorável de cada fase. O resultado mais sistemático foi que os participantes do Grupo Experimental observaram por mais tempo os estímulos associados à perda na condição REF vs. PUN. Esses resultados coincidem com os de estudos prévios e são discutidos em termos de aumento da eficiência da resposta efetiva. Também são discutidos a função dos estímulos discriminativos na manutenção das respostas de observação e parâmetros que podem ter afetado a ocorrência de observação seletiva entre os grupos / Research about signaled shocks and observing responses has shown that stimuli paired with absence of shock or reinforcement maintain the responses that produce them, but stimuli paired with shock or absence of reinforcement do not. However, those studies rarely have included a punishment contingency for direct comparison, disregarding the observing responses of stimulus of punishment contingencies. This study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effects of gaining (reinforcement: REF), maintaining (extinction: EXT), and losing (punishment: PUN) points, dependently and independently of a manual response, over the ocular observing responses of adult participants. The task was a simple discrimination in a two-component multiple schedule. With an eye-tracker equipment, stimulus of each component was shown only when a fixation was recorded in the area where it was programmed. In each experimental condition, two contingencies were compared (REF vs. EXT, PUN vs. EXT, and REF vs. PUN) and the duration and frequency of fixations to each stimulus were recorded. For participants in the Experimental Group, responses were dependent on responses on the keyboard and, for participants in the Yoked Group, the points were administered independently of any response and according to the schedules obtained by the participants in the Experimental Group. Participants from both groups maintained the observing responses, although without showing a preference for the stimulus associated with the most \'desirable\' result in each condition. The most consistent result was that participants in the Experimental Group observed for longer periods the stimulus associated with point-loss during the condition REF vs PUN. These results are in agreement with those of previous studies and are discussed in terms of increase in response efficiency. The function of discriminative stimulus in maintaining observing responses and parameters that might have affected the occurrence of selective observing are also discussed

Estudos sobre choques sinalizados e sobre respostas de observação têm demonstrado sistematicamente que estímulos correlacionados com ausência de choques ou apresentação de reforço mantêm as respostas que os produzem, enquanto que estímulos correlacionados com apresentação de choques ou ausência de reforço não as mantêm. No entanto, esses estudos raramente têm incluído contingências de punição que permitam comparações diretas, deixando de lado as respostas de observação de estímulos discriminativos de punição. O objetivo deste estudo foi comparar os efeitos do ganho (reforço: REF), a manutenção (extinção: EXT) e a perda (punição: PUN) de pontos, dependente e independentemente de uma resposta efetiva, sobre respostas de observação oculares de adultos. Os participantes foram expostos a uma tarefa de discriminação visual em esquema múltiplo com dois componentes, cada um com um estímulo visual diferente associado. Usando um equipamento de rastreamento ocular, o estímulo de cada componente foi apresentado apenas enquanto eram registradas fixações na região em que estava programado para ser apresentado. Em cada fase foram comparadas duas consequências da resposta efetiva (REF vs. EXT, EXT vs. PUN e REF vs. PUN) e foram mensuradas a frequência e duração das fixações nos estímulos de cada contingência. Para os participantes do Grupo Experimental os pontos foram dependentes das respostas efetivas e para os participantes do Grupo Acoplado os pontos foram independentes de qualquer resposta e foram apresentados conforme tinham sido obtidos pelos participantes do Grupo Experimental. Os participantes dos dois grupos mantiveram a resposta de observação aos estímulos, embora sem mostrar uma preferência sistemática pelo estímulo da contingência mais favorável de cada fase. O resultado mais sistemático foi que os participantes do Grupo Experimental observaram por mais tempo os estímulos associados à perda na condição REF vs. PUN. Esses resultados coincidem com os de estudos prévios e são discutidos em termos de aumento da eficiência da resposta efetiva. Também são discutidos a função dos estímulos discriminativos na manutenção das respostas de observação e parâmetros que podem ter afetado a ocorrência de observação seletiva entre os grupos / Research about signaled shocks and observing responses has shown that stimuli paired with absence of shock or reinforcement maintain the responses that produce them, but stimuli paired with shock or absence of reinforcement do not. However, those studies rarely have included a punishment contingency for direct comparison, disregarding the observing responses of stimulus of punishment contingencies. This study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effects of gaining (reinforcement: REF), maintaining (extinction: EXT), and losing (punishment: PUN) points, dependently and independently of a manual response, over the ocular observing responses of adult participants. The task was a simple discrimination in a two-component multiple schedule. With an eye-tracker equipment, stimulus of each component was shown only when a fixation was recorded in the area where it was programmed. In each experimental condition, two contingencies were compared (REF vs. EXT, PUN vs. EXT, and REF vs. PUN) and the duration and frequency of fixations to each stimulus were recorded. For participants in the Experimental Group, responses were dependent on responses on the keyboard and, for participants in the Yoked Group, the points were administered independently of any response and according to the schedules obtained by the participants in the Experimental Group. Participants from both groups maintained the observing responses, although without showing a preference for the stimulus associated with the most \'desirable\' result in each condition. The most consistent result was that participants in the Experimental Group observed for longer periods the stimulus associated with point-loss during the condition REF vs PUN. These results are in agreement with those of previous studies and are discussed in terms of increase in response efficiency. The function of discriminative stimulus in maintaining observing responses and parameters that might have affected the occurrence of selective observing are also discussed