This work encompasses studies on the phylogeny of F. oxysporum f. sp. lactucae, the development of a PCR-based seed assay for the detection of this fungus in seed, the potential of seed transmission of the fungus that may result in seed dissemination, and the genetic variation existing within pathogen populations. In phylogenetic analysis, the mtSSU and EF-1α sequences provided limited phylogenetic resolution and did not differentiate the lactucae isolates from other F. oxysporum isolates, while the IGS region resolved lactucae race 1 isolates as a monophyletic group with three other f. spp. of F. oxysporum. In all analyses, lactucae race 2 isolates comprised a separate lineage that was phylogenetically distinct. Based the IGS, PCR primers were designed for detection of the fungus, and a PCR-based seed assay was developed for detection of the fungus in seed. This assay allowed for detection of the pathogen from artificially infested seed lots with infestation rates as low as 0.5%. To investigate seedborne transmission, the moderately resistant cultivars Sharpshooter, Vulcan, and King Henry were inoculated and grown to maturity in the greenhouse. The pathogen was recovered from sections of surface disinfested inflorescence stalks at rates of 14.3 - 62.7% but not from the floral parts. The incidence of recovery from nondisinfested seeds was between 0.02% and 0.08%. The pathogen was not isolated from surface disinfested seeds suggesting that it was externally seedborne. The pathogen was recovered from pathogen-free seeds mixed with infested debris suggesting infested seed may contribute to recently documented dissemination of this pathogen worldwide. Isolates of Fusarium oxsyporum f. sp. lactucae were analyzed for genetic diversity using inter-simple sequence repeat molecular markers. Results revealed 2 main groups within the Arizona isolates corresponding to eight haplotypes in 2005, which evolved from 2 haplotypes in 2001. Haplotype 1-05 was widespread, occurring in two of the four countries where F. o. f. sp. lactucae has been reported. 23 haplotypes were identified among the California isolates that clustered into two subgroups. The clustering of isolates from Arizona suggests that there has been more than one introduction of the pathogen into Arizona.

No description available.

Doctor of Philosophy / Department of Plant Pathology / Christopher R. Little / Fusarium spp. are among the most important pathogen groups on soybeans. However, information regarding this genus on soybean seeds in the state of Kansas remains underexplored. Therefore, the goal of this study was to characterize the identity, frequency, and pathogenicity of soybean seedborne Fusarium spp. in the state of Kansas. For the identification and frequency of seedborne Fusarium spp., culture-dependent (i.e. semi-selective medium) and -independent (i.e. DNA metabarcoding) approaches were used. Also, information regarding the pathogenicity of the most common seedborne Fusarium spp. from soybeans was assessed to better understand their role as soybean pathogens. Overall, eleven Fusarium spp. were identified in this study. Semi-selective media showed that approximately 33% of soybean seed samples were infected with Fusarium spp. Moreover, Fusarium spp. were isolated from seed sampled from 80% of the locations in Kansas. Furthermore, a low incidence of Fusarium spp. was observed within infected seed samples and averaged 2%. Nine Fusarium spp. were found in soybean seeds using the culture-dependent approach. Fusarium semitectum was the most frequent, followed by F. proliferatum and F. verticillioides. Fusarium acuminatum, F. equiseti, F. fujikuroi, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, and F. thapsinum were found in lower frequencies among naturally infected seeds. DNA metabarcoding experiments showed that Fusarium spp. are more frequent in soybean seeds than previously known. All asymptomatic soybean seeds analyzed, using Illumina MiSeq platform, showed the presence of the genus Fusarium including two pathogenic species, F. proliferatum and F. thapsinum. Fusarium acuminatum, F. merismoides, F. solani, F. semitectum, and Fusarium sp. were also identified using the culture-independent approach. Preliminary results also showed that F. proliferatum and F. thapsinum were observed in all three major soybean seed tissues: seed coat, cotyledons, and the embryo axis. Depending on the soybean genotype, inoculum potential and aggressiveness, F. proliferatum, F. graminearum, F. fujikuroi, F. oxysporum, F. semitectum, F. thapsinum, and F. verticillioides were pathogenic to soybean and negatively affect soybean seed quality, at different levels, in controlled conditions. Moreover, F. equiseti and F. acuminatum did not cause significant damage to soybean seeds and seedlings. Understanding seedborne Fusarium spp. and their influence on soybean seed and seedling diseases is critical for the development of effective disease control strategies, especially regarding early detection of pathogenic strains in seeds (i.e., seed health testing), ensuring the crop productivity, quality, and safety.

Este estudo teve como objetivos: investigar o método mais adequado para detecção de fungos associados às sementes de cana-de-açúcar; fazer o levantamento dos fungos associados às sementes e incidência; correlacionar a incidência fúngica nessas sementes e o ambiente onde foram produzidas; efeitos que fungos associados às sementes têm em sementes e plântulas; patogenicidade dos fungos mais freqüentes e sintomas que podem causar; determinar a sensibilidade dos principais fungos a fungicidas; determinar a fitotoxicidade de sementes e plântulas a fungicidas e propor o tratamento fungicida mais adequado para produção de plântulas vigorosas, sem sintomas, para os programas de melhoramento. Para avaliar o método mais adequado de detecção dos fungos, realizaram-se análises sanitárias utilizando combinações entre recipientes, substratos e regimes de luz. Para levantamento dos fungos associados e da incidência em sementes, realizaram-se análises sanitárias das sementes de 29 amostras e as incidências fúngicas obtidas foram comparadas com os dados climáticos do local onde foram produzidas as sementes. Os possíveis efeitos dos fungos às sementes e plântulas foram estudados por testes de sanidade e germinação de sementes, observando-se quais condições se apresentavam as sementes e plântulas que haviam incidência fúngica. A patogenicidade dos fungos, encontrados com maior freqüência, foi avaliada por inoculação de sementes através do contato com cultura em meio colonizado pelo fungo, posterior distribuição das sementes em substrato estéril e avaliação da emergência de plântulas e total de plântulas com sintomas e tipos de sintomas. Por meio de ensaios de fungitoxicidade in vitro , estudou-se a sensibilidade dos fungos, mais freqüentemente detectados em sementes, a nove fungicidas nas doses de 1, 10 e 100 ppm e determinação da ED50. Os fungicidas mais eficientes foram avaliados, in vivo, quanto a sua fitotoxicidade por meio da pulverização, em diferentes doses, em sementes distribuídas em substrato estéril. Foram avaliados: emergência, altura da parte aérea e comprimento da raiz das plântulas, total de plântulas com sintomas de fitotoxicidade e outros tipos de sintomas. Ao final, realizou-se validação, pulverizando-se o fungicida eficiente in vitro e não fitotóxico em sementes de cana-deaçúcar. Os resultados encontrados foram: a) o método escolhido para realização das análises sanitárias foi o de placas de Petri de plástico com papel de filtro como substrato e incubação a 28 ± 2°C sob regime de luz alternada (12h luz branca fluorescente/ 12h escuro); b) os gêneros fúngicos mais freqüentemente presentes nas sementes de cana-de-açúcar foram Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium e Phoma; c) não foi constatada relação entre incidência fúngica e ambiente de produção das sementes; d) a condição de semente de cana-de-açúcar mais comumente encontrada com presença de fungos associados foi a não germinada, independentemente do fungo avaliado. Houve baixa porcentagem de sintomas necróticos na parte aérea e raiz, no entanto, quando ocorreram, estavam associados às incidências dos fungos Bipolaris sacchari, Curvularia GM1, Fusarium verticillioides e Phoma herbarum; e) os gêneros considerados altamente patogênicos foram Bipolaris e Curvularia, considerando-se os demais medianos, pouco/ não patogênicos; f) os fungicidas de maiores eficiências de inibição, principalmente dos fungos patogênicos, foram triadimenol e fludioxonil + metalaxil-M; g) o fungicida não fitotóxico e que apresentou efeito estimulante nas doses utilizadas foi o fludioxonil + metalaxil-M. Quando esse fungicida foi aplicado na validação, as doses avaliadas não foram suficientes para se detectar diferença significativa benéfica, de acordo com as variáveis analisadas. / The present study had as objectives: to investigate the most adequate method to detect sugarcane seedborne fungi; to do the survey of the seedborne fungi and of the incidence; to correlate the fungi incidence in the seeds and the conditons where they were produced; to evaluate the possible effects that seedborne fungi have on seeds and seedlings; to verify the pathogenicity of the most frequent ones and the symptoms that they can cause; to determine the sensitivity of the main fungi to fungicides; to determine the seeds and seedlings phytotoxicity to fungicides and to propose the most adequate fungicidal treatment to the production of vigorous seedlings, without symptoms, to the breeding programs. To assess the most adequate method to detect seedborne fungi, health tests using different combinations between containers, substrates and light regimen, were done. To do the survey of seedborne fungi and their incidence on seeds, seed health tests of 29 samples and the fungical incidence obtained were compared with the climatic data from where the seeds were produced. The effects that seedborne fungi have on seeds and seedlings were studied by health and seed germination tests and the conditions of seeds and seedlings with fungi incidence were observed. The fungi pathogenicity, found in a higher frequency, was assessed by seed inoculation through contact with medium colonized by the fungi, than the seeds were distributed on sterilized substrate and the seedlings emergency and total seedlings with symptoms and kind of symptoms were assessed. By in vitro fungitoxicity assays, the sensitivity, of the most frequently detected fungi, to nine fungicides in the doses of 1, 10 and 100 ppm, was studied and ED50. The phytotoxicity in vivo, of the most efficient fungicide was done by spraying different doses on seeds distributed on sterilized substrate. Emergency, seedling height of aerial part and length of the root, total of seedlings with phytotoxicity symptoms and other kind of symptoms were assessed. A validation, in vitro, was done by spraying the efficient and non phytotoxic fungicide on sugarcane seeds. Obtained results were: a) the chosen method for health tests was the plastic Petri plates with filter paper as substrate and incubation at 28 ± 2°C under 12h alternating cycles of light and darkness; b) the fungi genera most frequently present on sugarcane seeds were: Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium and Phoma; c) the relation between fungical incidence and seed production conditions had not been noticed; d) the most commonly sugarcane seed conditon found with seedborne fungi was the not-germinated, independently of the assessed fungi. Low percentage of necrotic symptoms on aerial part and root where observed, however, when occurred, it was associated to the incidence of the fungi Bipolaris sacchari, Curvularia GM1, Fusarium verticillioides and Phoma herbarum; e) the genera considered highly pathogenic were Bipolaris and Curvularia. The other fungi were considered of median pathogenicity or little/not pathogenic; f) the fungicides with a higher inibition efficiency to most pathogenic fungi, were triadimenol and fludioxonil + metalaxil-M; g) fludioxonil + metalaxil-M was not a phytotoxic fungicide and presented stimulant effect on used doses. When this fungicide was applied on the validation, the assessed doses were not enough to detect beneficial significant differences, in agreement with the analyzed variables.

Este estudo teve como objetivos: investigar o método mais adequado para detecção de fungos associados às sementes de cana-de-açúcar; fazer o levantamento dos fungos associados às sementes e incidência; correlacionar a incidência fúngica nessas sementes e o ambiente onde foram produzidas; efeitos que fungos associados às sementes têm em sementes e plântulas; patogenicidade dos fungos mais freqüentes e sintomas que podem causar; determinar a sensibilidade dos principais fungos a fungicidas; determinar a fitotoxicidade de sementes e plântulas a fungicidas e propor o tratamento fungicida mais adequado para produção de plântulas vigorosas, sem sintomas, para os programas de melhoramento. Para avaliar o método mais adequado de detecção dos fungos, realizaram-se análises sanitárias utilizando combinações entre recipientes, substratos e regimes de luz. Para levantamento dos fungos associados e da incidência em sementes, realizaram-se análises sanitárias das sementes de 29 amostras e as incidências fúngicas obtidas foram comparadas com os dados climáticos do local onde foram produzidas as sementes. Os possíveis efeitos dos fungos às sementes e plântulas foram estudados por testes de sanidade e germinação de sementes, observando-se quais condições se apresentavam as sementes e plântulas que haviam incidência fúngica. A patogenicidade dos fungos, encontrados com maior freqüência, foi avaliada por inoculação de sementes através do contato com cultura em meio colonizado pelo fungo, posterior distribuição das sementes em substrato estéril e avaliação da emergência de plântulas e total de plântulas com sintomas e tipos de sintomas. Por meio de ensaios de fungitoxicidade in vitro , estudou-se a sensibilidade dos fungos, mais freqüentemente detectados em sementes, a nove fungicidas nas doses de 1, 10 e 100 ppm e determinação da ED50. Os fungicidas mais eficientes foram avaliados, in vivo, quanto a sua fitotoxicidade por meio da pulverização, em diferentes doses, em sementes distribuídas em substrato estéril. Foram avaliados: emergência, altura da parte aérea e comprimento da raiz das plântulas, total de plântulas com sintomas de fitotoxicidade e outros tipos de sintomas. Ao final, realizou-se validação, pulverizando-se o fungicida eficiente in vitro e não fitotóxico em sementes de cana-deaçúcar. Os resultados encontrados foram: a) o método escolhido para realização das análises sanitárias foi o de placas de Petri de plástico com papel de filtro como substrato e incubação a 28 ± 2°C sob regime de luz alternada (12h luz branca fluorescente/ 12h escuro); b) os gêneros fúngicos mais freqüentemente presentes nas sementes de cana-de-açúcar foram Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium e Phoma; c) não foi constatada relação entre incidência fúngica e ambiente de produção das sementes; d) a condição de semente de cana-de-açúcar mais comumente encontrada com presença de fungos associados foi a não germinada, independentemente do fungo avaliado. Houve baixa porcentagem de sintomas necróticos na parte aérea e raiz, no entanto, quando ocorreram, estavam associados às incidências dos fungos Bipolaris sacchari, Curvularia GM1, Fusarium verticillioides e Phoma herbarum; e) os gêneros considerados altamente patogênicos foram Bipolaris e Curvularia, considerando-se os demais medianos, pouco/ não patogênicos; f) os fungicidas de maiores eficiências de inibição, principalmente dos fungos patogênicos, foram triadimenol e fludioxonil + metalaxil-M; g) o fungicida não fitotóxico e que apresentou efeito estimulante nas doses utilizadas foi o fludioxonil + metalaxil-M. Quando esse fungicida foi aplicado na validação, as doses avaliadas não foram suficientes para se detectar diferença significativa benéfica, de acordo com as variáveis analisadas. / The present study had as objectives: to investigate the most adequate method to detect sugarcane seedborne fungi; to do the survey of the seedborne fungi and of the incidence; to correlate the fungi incidence in the seeds and the conditons where they were produced; to evaluate the possible effects that seedborne fungi have on seeds and seedlings; to verify the pathogenicity of the most frequent ones and the symptoms that they can cause; to determine the sensitivity of the main fungi to fungicides; to determine the seeds and seedlings phytotoxicity to fungicides and to propose the most adequate fungicidal treatment to the production of vigorous seedlings, without symptoms, to the breeding programs. To assess the most adequate method to detect seedborne fungi, health tests using different combinations between containers, substrates and light regimen, were done. To do the survey of seedborne fungi and their incidence on seeds, seed health tests of 29 samples and the fungical incidence obtained were compared with the climatic data from where the seeds were produced. The effects that seedborne fungi have on seeds and seedlings were studied by health and seed germination tests and the conditions of seeds and seedlings with fungi incidence were observed. The fungi pathogenicity, found in a higher frequency, was assessed by seed inoculation through contact with medium colonized by the fungi, than the seeds were distributed on sterilized substrate and the seedlings emergency and total seedlings with symptoms and kind of symptoms were assessed. By in vitro fungitoxicity assays, the sensitivity, of the most frequently detected fungi, to nine fungicides in the doses of 1, 10 and 100 ppm, was studied and ED50. The phytotoxicity in vivo, of the most efficient fungicide was done by spraying different doses on seeds distributed on sterilized substrate. Emergency, seedling height of aerial part and length of the root, total of seedlings with phytotoxicity symptoms and other kind of symptoms were assessed. A validation, in vitro, was done by spraying the efficient and non phytotoxic fungicide on sugarcane seeds. Obtained results were: a) the chosen method for health tests was the plastic Petri plates with filter paper as substrate and incubation at 28 ± 2°C under 12h alternating cycles of light and darkness; b) the fungi genera most frequently present on sugarcane seeds were: Bipolaris, Cladosporium, Curvularia, Fusarium and Phoma; c) the relation between fungical incidence and seed production conditions had not been noticed; d) the most commonly sugarcane seed conditon found with seedborne fungi was the not-germinated, independently of the assessed fungi. Low percentage of necrotic symptoms on aerial part and root where observed, however, when occurred, it was associated to the incidence of the fungi Bipolaris sacchari, Curvularia GM1, Fusarium verticillioides and Phoma herbarum; e) the genera considered highly pathogenic were Bipolaris and Curvularia. The other fungi were considered of median pathogenicity or little/not pathogenic; f) the fungicides with a higher inibition efficiency to most pathogenic fungi, were triadimenol and fludioxonil + metalaxil-M; g) fludioxonil + metalaxil-M was not a phytotoxic fungicide and presented stimulant effect on used doses. When this fungicide was applied on the validation, the assessed doses were not enough to detect beneficial significant differences, in agreement with the analyzed variables.

‘Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum’ is a α-Proteo bacteria, Gram-negative, restricted to plant phloem and to the haemolymph of psyllids that act as vectors. This emerging bacterium has been associated with different diseases in different hosts and associated with carrot (Daucus carota) in Spain. Vegetative disorders of unknown etiology have also been observed in celery (Apium graveolens) since 2008. A real-time PCR protocol specific to ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ detection, using TaqMan probe and direct sample preparation methods have been developed. This technology has been validated in an intra-laboratory study (sensitivity 1, specificity 1 and accuracy 100%) and is available commercially as a complete kit. It has been demonstrated that ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ is associated with the observed syndrome in celery and a new bacterium haplotype (E) has been identified. With these results it is concluded that celery is a new host of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ (Teresani et al., 2014a). Using the newly developed real-time PCR protocol ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ has been detected in 42,6% of the carrot seeds lots tested and in individual seeds. The number of cells/seeds has been estimated in 4.8±3.3 to 210±6.7, which only 5% were viable. After 150 days post-germination, 12% of seedlings showed symptoms and tested positive for ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’. Liberibacter-like cells were observed in the phloem sieve elements of the seed coat and in the phloem of carrot leaf midrib from seedlings. These results demonstrated that ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ is transmitted by carrot seeds (Bertolini et al., 2014b). The collected arthropods were classified into families, and the superfamily Psylloidea was identified to the species level resulting Bactericera trigonica, B. tremblayi and B. nigricornis the main identified species. The population dynamics of different psyllids species visiting carrot, celery and potato has been determined, concluding that the highest populations are captured during summer. The bacterium has been detected in the different Bactericera species previous cited additionally to Bactericera sp. The psyllid species carrying the bacteria can be considered as possible vectors of the bacterium (Teresani et al. 2014b). Electrical Penetration Graphs showed that B. trigonica was able to feed in the phloem of carrot, celery and potato but not in the phloem of tomato plants. Experimental transmission showed that B. trigonica transmitted ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ from carrot to carrot, celery, potato and tomato. More efficient transmission occurred with ten individuals, and the transmission rates were 100% in celery, 80% in carrot and 10% in potato and tomato. The experimental transmission to potatoes threatens this crop (Teresani et al., 2014c). These combined results have built a scientific foundation of the biological and epidemiological aspects of ‘Ca. L. solanacearum’ contributing to new scientific information that is key in cultivation of celery and carrot to establish bacteria control strategies. The use of bacteria-free carrot seed lots will definitely contribute to mitigate damage and reduce risks of transmission to solanaceous crops. / Ribeiro Teresani, G. (2014). Candidatus Liberibacter solanacearum: detection, characterization, new hosts and epidemiology in Spain [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/48459 / TESIS