Thesis (M.F.A.)--West Virginia University, 2003. / Title from document title page. Document formatted into pages; contains vii, 90 p. Includes abstract.

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Research has indicated a relationship between reminiscence and self-actualization among older persons. Reminiscence, or reflection upon the past, provides an opportunity for survey, assessment, and re-integration of significant aspects of one's life. Thus, reminiscing facilitates movement toward self-actualization. Reflection upon the past has been associated with adaptation to loss and stress in old age. Entry into special settings for the elderly often involves adaptation to socially-imposed stress. During periods of environmental adjustment, reminiscing has been used by many older persons as an adaptive technique to promote self-actualization. The impact of one special setting, long-term care, upon reminiscence has been substantiated by research. A higher frequency of reminiscing has been evidenced in institutionalized residents as compared to elders within the community setting. Retrospection has also been associated with the anticipatory stage of the institutionalization process. Further research was needed, however, to determine the impact of other residential settings upon the relationship between reminiscence and self-actualization. The current study examined the influence of three different residential settings upon reminiscence and self-actualization among male and female elderly. Three constructs were used as dependent variables: reminiscence frequency, reminiscence affect, and self-actualization (major scales of time competent and inner-directed). The Reminiscence Questionnaire and the Personal Orientation Inventory, were used to measure these constructs. A simple randomized-subjects design was utilized. Ten males and ten females were randomly selected from each of three residential settings: a senior day center, a long-term care facility, and a senior retirement community. Age range was 70-85 years with a mean age of 76.5 years. All subjects were individually administered The Reminiscence Questionnaire and the Personal Orientation Inventory. The following four hypotheses were analyzed: (H1) Elderly males or females participating in a senior day center, living in a long-term care facility, or residing in a senior retirement community will show no significant difference in scores on frequency of reminiscence on The Reminiscence Questionnaire. (H2) Elderly males or females participating in a senior day center, living in a long-term care facility, or residing in a senior retirement community will show no significant difference in scores on affective quality of reminiscence on The Reminiscence Questionnaire. (H3) Elderly males or females participating in a senior day center, living in a long-term care facility, or residing in a senior retirement community will show no significant difference in scores on self-actualization on the Personal Orientation Inventory. (H4) There will be no significant interaction between gender and residential setting regarding frequency of reminiscence, affective quality of reminiscence, and scores on self-actualization. Neither reminiscence frequency nor reminiscence affect of respondents significantly differed between setting and gender. Significant results beyond the .05 level of confidence were obtained on both measures of self-actualization. Results indicated that residential setting was the source of the statistically significant difference with gender having no statistically significant independent effect. Residential setting and gender of respondents did not significantly interact regarding reminiscence frequency, reminiscence affect, and self-actualization. These data indicate that the residential setting of older persons influences both time competence and inner-directedness, factors of self-actualization.

Throughout history, two conceptions of happiness have been advocated. The hedonic ideal, which often predominates in modern Western societies, advocates enjoyment and avoidance of pain. The eudaimonic view argues that fulfillment comes from personal growth and excellence. This research was among the first empirical comparisons of eudaimonic and hedonic pursuits in terms of their actual relationships with happiness. / One study was conducted with a single questionnaire (117 participants) and a second used detailed experience-sampling (100 participants). In the majority of analyses, hedonic activity was linked with greater positive affect and lower negative affect than eudaimonic activity was, while eudaimonic activity was associated with greater meaning in life and higher personal expressiveness (i.e., authenticity, involvement, fulfillment, and feeling alive). These results suggest that positive and negative affect (more emotional and visceral) could be called hedonic well-being, while meaning and personal expressiveness (subtler, require thought, and involve feeling more integrated and right than good) might be called eudaimonic well-being. The findings also underline the limitations of assessing only hedonic happiness, as is usually done---it can lead to inaccurate conclusions about the benefits of eudaimonic pursuits. / The results also suggested a trade-off in time between the benefits of hedonic and eudaimonic activities. The links between hedonic activity and well-being were strongest during the activity but often weakened with time. In contrast, the links between eudaimonic activity and happiness were weakest during the activity but became stronger with repeated eudaimonic efforts. People with frequent eudaimonic interests were also happier during many activities, even hedonic ones, than those with few eudaimonic projects; such increased enjoyment was not experienced by people with frequent hedonic pursuits. These results are consistent with theories that hedonic activities produce immediate satisfaction but that it fades with time, whereas eudaimonic strivings are challenging but increase well-being in the long run. Eudaimonic activities may promote well-being by building personal capital, e.g., coping skills, improved life circumstances, and deeper appreciation of life experiences. / These findings suggest that the modern preoccupation with enjoyment and comfort is an incomplete ideal. People probably need significant eudaimonic pursuits to experience meaningful and lasting fulfillment.

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Proceeding from the belief that much human misery is self-inflicted as a result of negative self-statements (Ellis & Harper, 1962), it was felt that emphasis on positive self-thought would represent a significant therapeutic intervention. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of positive self-statements on self-concept. Since negative self-defeating statements are quite well ingrained, especially within Christian people (Reglin, 1976), it was decided to identify this as the target population. Furthermore, it was felt that cognitive restructuring would require considerable amounts of direction before it would be effective. To accomplish this goal, Frank (1961) and Breger and McGaugh (1967) suggest the need for therapists to consider such methods as hypnosis, suggestion, and relaxation. Therefore, within this study, these methods of restructuring were utilized in an effort to enhance self-concept.The sample consisted of 48 female Christian students enrolled Fall Quarter, 1983 at Ball State University. Twenty three and twenty five subjects were assigned to the experimental and control conditions, respectively. The experimental group was exposed to hypnotically induced positive self-statements. The subjects in the control group did not receive treatment. At the end of the treatment period, all subjects were administered the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale. The Total Positive Score (P) was used as an index of self-concept.The initial hypnotic induction consisted of a procedure suggested by Wolberg (1964) and Barber (1975). The procedure involved (a) deep breathing, (b) progressive muscle relaxation, and (c) visualization of a relaxing scene. After a pause, deepening by means of mental imagery took place in which subjects imagined themselves descending a 10 step escalator. During subsequent sessions, an abbreviated induction procedure was used.The positive self-statements used in this study are those formulated by Barber (1979, 1981), Hartland (1965, 1971), Stanton (1975, 1977), and others (Coleman, 1971; Gorman, 1974;, Maltz, 1960; and Oakley, 1965). The content of these positive self-statements suggested that subjects would feel generally more relaxed and self-confident, more self-reliant and independent,physically stronger and healthier, calmer, more serene and unconcerned by situations. which used to bother them. It was hypothesized that hypnotically induced positive self-statements would have a significant facilitating effect on self-concept in Christian, female college students. The hypothesis was tested using a two-group design and the corresponding parametric "t" test. Analysis of the data clearly indicates the absence of any significant treatment effect.

The primary purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of counseling on the energy commitments of clients. Other purposes of the research were to examine the differences in energy commitment and its various components in relation to the success of counseling, to evaluate the feasibility of using energy commitment theory as a means for measuring change as a result of counseling, and to investigate factors which might produce change in man's energy commitments.The theoretical framework used to study the effect of counseling on clients' energy commitments was formulated by Hollis and Hollis. Energy commitment was defined as the condition of consigning energy to be used in facilitating action in the future. In this context, energy commitment possesses three major components--direction, thrust, and flexibility. Direction was divided into the three separate categories of people, objects, and ideas; while thrust was divided into the three separate categories of priority, force, and amount.The research design of the study required that the participating clients submit to specific measurements prior to counseling, undergo counseling, and submit to specific measurements after counseling. In all, twenty-one clients completed this sequence during the eight week time period. In terms of specific criteria for selection, two qualifications were established. All subjects were at least eighteen years of age and were willing to participate on a voluntary basis. In total, nine null hypotheses were investigated at the .05 level of significance. Six of the null hypotheses pertained to the effect of counseling on clients' energy commitments, while three of the null hypotheses pertained to the degree of association between various energy commitment measurements and various measurements of counseling success. The six hypotheses pertaining to the effect of counseling on clients' energy commitments were evaluated by three different statistical treatments: the Friedman two-way analysis of variance by ranks, the Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed-ranks test, and the Chi Square. The three remaining hypotheses were evaluated by Chi Square and contingency coefficients.The instruments used to determine change, if any, in clients' energy commitments were the Structured Interview Guide (SIG) and the Interview Rating Sheet (IRS). In terms of the degree of counseling success, three measurements were employed. First, the Personal Orientation Inventor, (POI) by Everett Shostrom was used to determine change, if any in the clients' level of self-actualization. Second, the Client Expectancy Inventory (CEI) and the Inventory of Fulfillment of Client's Expectancy (IFCE) were employed to measure counseling success in terms of counseling expectancy and fulfillment of counseling expectancy. The CEI and the IFCE were developed by the author and Joseph Hollis specifically for the present study. The theoretical framework for both instruments was developed after reviewing the literature pertaining to the goals of counseling and clients' expectations of counseling. Third, the researcher employed ratings of counseling success obtained from the participating counselors. In this respect, the researcher constructed the Counselor's Rating of Counseling, Success (CRCS) for this purpose.Two major conclusions were made from an analysis of the data. First, the counseling process produces significant change in the way an individual approaches his commitments, but the actual energy commitments remain essentially the same. Second, the findings concerned with the degree of association between energy commitment change and measurements of counseling success were not significantly related. Hence, the conclusion was made that energy commitment variables are not to any measureable degree assessing the same change criteria as those employed to measure counseling success.Additional data were analyzed pertaining to the correlation between client and counselor ratings of the counseling experience. The obtained Pearson Product-Moment Correlation was not significant at the .05 level of probability. However, the difference between the means of the two groups was significant at the .05 level. Based on the preceding data, the conclusion was made that clients tend to rate the counseling experience more successful than their respective counselors.

This study investigated leader presence effect by dividing a sample of 127 volunteer undergraudate students into 15 small groups of 5-10 members. The students were arbitarily placed into groups with an attempt to balance each group in regard to age, sex, and availability. Eight of the small groups had a leader present and 7 of the groups had no leader present. All 15 groups met for 2 consecutive hours for 5 consecutive weeks. All 15 groups received the same instructions. The 8 leader-present groups were instructed by the leader reading a typed script taken from the tape recordings which were used to instruct the no-leader-present groups. The leaders were graduate students in the Guidance and Counseling Department at Ball State University. The tape recorded instructions were selected from the Encountertapes for Personal Growth Groups designed by Betty Berzon.The Personal Orientation Inventory and the Interpersonal Check List were administered to each of the subjects prior to their group experience and immediately following the final session. An analysis of covariance was computed for these data.. The subjects completed a self report scale at the conclusion of each session. Chi squares were computed for these data. The .05 level of confidence was established for rejection of the null hypotheses. At the conclusion of the final session each subject also completed an open ended questionnaire on which they reacted to the five week group experience. The questionnaire data were reported descriptively.An analysis of the data indicated that there was no significant differences between participants in the leader-present groups and in the no-leader-present groups. All of the null hypotheses were accepted.Discussion of the findings and recommendations for further study pertaining to leader presence effect on personal growth groups were made.

The purpose of this study was to compare the differences in energy commitments between a group of more actualized individuals and a group of less actualized individuals. Level of self-actualization was determined by means of the Personal Orientation Inventory by Everett Shostrum and energy commitment level was assessed by means of an individual interview developed by Hollis and Hollis. The study was an investigation along lines of theory in energy commitment by Hollis and Hollis.Energy commitment as defined in this study is the planned use of time and energy directed toward the maintenance or accomplishment of some level of desired action or feeling. Energy commitment is divided into three general categories: direction, strength (thrust), and flexibility. The direction category was subdivided into three subcategories: people, objects, and ideas. Further subdivision of the major category of thrust yields the categories of priority of commitment, force of commitment, and amount of energy necessary for maintenance of commitment.The population selected to be inventoried by the Personal Orientation Inventory was required to be female, thirty years old or less, a senior at Ball State University, caucasian, unmarried, Indiana resident, and not engaged in student teaching or internship during the quarter of the study. One hundred fifty students who met the criteria were inventoried to establish a range of actualization scores. The actualization score was a combination of inner directed scale and time competence scale raw scores from the POI. The students with the highest twenty-five scores were known as the more actualized group and students with the lowest twenty-five scores were known as the less actualized group. Each of the fifty individuals was assessed by means of a standardized individual interview to determine her energy commitments.Eight hypotheses were proposed relating to the difference between groups based upon direction of the commitments, force of the commitments, amount of energy required to maintain the commitments, flexibility of the commitments, and hypothetical energy commitments.The treatment of the data included use of t-Tests to compare the mean values of each group on sub-categories, chi square in assessing significance of differences in frequencies, and subjective observation of differences in summaries of results.No differences which could be labeled significant were found when the direction, force, amount, and flexibility categories of the two groups were compared. The two groups differed in the events which could hypothetically interfere with energy commitments. No significant difference was found in the conditions which kept each individual from committing hypothetical energies. Both groups saw the antecedents which brought about their energy commitments similarly. When boundaries and restrictions were removed which would limit the individual, the groups were very dissimilar in the hypothetical energy commitments identified.None of the t-Test and chi square results were statistically significant at the .05 level. However, a thread of similarity was maintained in all categories in the difference between the two groups and their commitments to objects when the means of groups were compared on commitment priority, force, amount of energy required to maintain the commitment, and flexibility. This was a finding which was neither hypothesized nor expected in the comparatively large amount observed. This finding led the investigator to indicate the need for a measure of energy commitment of greater refinement with which the nature of the observed differences could be subjected to closer scrutiny.