High rate algae oxidation ponds (HRAOP) for domestic wastewater treatment generate biosolids that are predominantly microalgae. Consequently, HRAOP biosolids are enriched with minerals, amino acids, nutrients and possibly contain plant growth regulator (PGR)-like substances, which makes HRAOP biosolids attractive as fertiliser or PGR. This study investigated HRAOP biosolids as a starting material for a natural, cost-effective and readily-available eco-friendly organic fertiliser and/or PGRs. Various HRAOP extract formulations were prepared and their effect on plant growth and development was evaluated using selected bioassays. Initial screening included assessing the effect on change in specific leaf area, radish cotyledon expansion as an indicator of PGR-like activity, and seed germination index (GI). More detailed studies on fertiliser efficacy and PGR-like activity utilised bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) plants. Combined effects of sonicated (S) and 40% v/v methanol (M) extract (5:1 SM) had impressive plant responses, comparable to Hoagland solution (HS). Other potentially fertiliser formulations included 0.5% M, 1% M, 2.5% S and 5% S formulations. The 5:1 SM and 5% S showed greater PGR-like activity, promoting cotyledon expansion by 459 ± 0.02% and 362 ± 0.01%, respectively. GI data showed that none of the formulations negatively impacted germination. Further investigation showed that the 5% S formulation increased leaf length, width and area by 6.69 ± 0.24, 6.21 ± 0.2 mm and 41.55 ± 0.2 mm². All formulated fertiliser extracts had no adverse effect on chlorophyll content and plant nutrient balance as indicated by C:N (8-10:1) ratio. In addition, plants appeared to actively mobilise nutrients to regions where needed as evidenced by a shift in shoot: root ratio depending on C, N and water availability. Furthermore, 5% S caused a 75% increase in tomato productivity and had no effect on bean productivity. Whereas, 5:1 SM and 1% M formulation improved bean pod production by 33.3% and 11%, respectively but did not affect tomato production. Harvest index (HI) however indicated a 3% reduction in tomato productivity with 5:1 SM and little or no enhancement in bean productivity with both 5:1 SM and 5% S treatments. Bean plants treated with 5:1 SM and 5% S produced larger fruits, which could be an indication of the presence of a PGR effect. Overall, HRAOP biosolids extracts prepared and investigated in this study demonstrated both fertiliser characteristics and PGR-like activity with performances comparable and in some cases exceeding that of commercial products. However additional research is needed to confirm presence of PGR-like activities and fertiliser efficacy.

M.Sc. (Chemistry) / Prosperity for South Africa depends on the sound management and utilization of many resources, with water playing a crucial role. Located largely in a semi-arid part of the world, South Africa’s water resources are, in global terms, scarce and extremely limited. A key environmental problem facing South Africa is water pollution. This arises from many sources, including mining and industrial effluents, and runoff of biocides, nutrients and pathogens from agricultural lands, urban areas and informal settlements with poor sanitation. The consequences are often severe, including among other impacts, habitat destruction, reduced oxygen levels, fish kills and loss of human life. Inorganic and organic pollutants as well as microbes are the main constituents of the effluent from the domestic, mining, agriculture, metal electroplating, petrochemical and transport industries. The presence of pollutants in environmental systems is of concern because ultimately, they are incorporated into drinking water and various food chains. Therefore, the overall focus of this study was mainly metals analysis in wastewater systems before and after treatment processes so as to establish the efficiency of the treatment processes....

This thesis was about finding a recovery method for TiO2, using a TiO2 recovery technology, which was high enough to be economical ($10 - $15 per 1,000 gallons) to be adopted by wastewater treatment plants. When comparing recovery technologies, the top three which were investigated further through experimentation were a centrifuge, sedimentation tank, and microfilter membrane. Upon experimentation and research, the TiO2 recovery efficiencies of these technologies were 99.5%, 92.5%, and 96.3%, respectively. When doing economic analysis on these technologies comparing TiO2 efficiencies and capital and operational costs, the centrifuge was the most preferred economic option. Also, its cost did were in the economical range ($10 - $15/1,000 gallons) which makes even this technology economical. Besides that, important and valuable information about TiO2: settling behavior, particle size and zeta potential, interactions with COD, and filter operations (particle characterization) were discovered for future research and future testing on this issue. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2015. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

Thesis (M.Sc. (Aquaculture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / Population growth in urban areas is putting pressure on sewage treatment plants. The improper treatment of sewage entering the aquatic ecosystems causes deterioration of the water quality of the receiving water body. The effect of sewage effluent on the Sand River was assessed. Eight sampling sites were selected, site 1 and 2 were upstream of the of the sewage treatment plant along the urbanised area of Polokwane, whilst sites 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 were downstream. The physicochemical parameters and coliform counts in the water samples were determined. Macroinvertebrate abundances and diversity (H') was determined at the different sites during the dry and rainy season. The water quality status of the Sand River with respect to the South African scoring system (SASS) scores and average score per taxon (ASPT) was determined. A linear regression was performed to test the correlation of the SASS scores with abundance and H'. Heavy metal concentrations in water, sediment, grass (Ishaemum fasciculatum) and fish (Oreochromis mossambicus) at the sites were evaluated. The suitability of the Sand River and surrounding borehole water for irrigation was also determined. Hierarchical average linkage cluster analysis produced two clusters, grouping two sites above the sewage treatment works and six sites downstream of the sewage effluent discharge point. Principal component analysis (PCA) identified total nitrogen, total phosphorus, conductivity and salinity as the major factors contributing to the variability of the Sand River water quality. These factors are strongly associated with the downstream sites. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) indicated that Chironomidae family was found on the nitrogen gradient during the dry season. However during the rainy season, Chironomidae was found in the centre of the ordination which indicated that it was ubiquitous. Escherichia coli levels (1463.73 counts/100ml) in the maturation ponds of Polokwane wastewater treatment works could potentially lead to contamination of the Polokwane aquifer. High diversity was recorded at the sites before discharge and the sites further downstream. There was significant correlation (P<0.05) between the SASS scores and macroinvertebrate diversity during the dry season (R2=0.69) and the rainy season (R2=0.77). Fish samples had significantly higher (P<0.05) iron and copper concentrations, while the vi sediment had significantly higher lead concentration (P>0.05). The United States salinity laboratory (USSL) diagram indicated that the sodium hazard (SAR) and alkalinity hazard (conductivity) was low and the Sand River and borehole water was suitable for irrigation. The residual sodium carbonate (RSC) was below 1.24 meq/l, also indicating that both the Sand River and borehole water is still suitable for irrigation. The total phosphorus concentrations fluctuated across the different site. Total nitrogen concentrations showed a gradual decrease downstream from the point of discharge. The coliform levels also showed a gradual decrease downstream. This shows that the river still has a good self-purification capacity.

Thesis (M.S.)--James Madison University, 2009. / Includes bibliographical references.

Thesis (MSc Food Sc )--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African apple juice processing industry is growing rapidly and during the harvesting season the wastewater volumes and organic loads increase significantly with a considerable environmental impact. These larger apple juice processing wastewater (AJPWW) volumes and chemical oxygen demand (COD) loads subsequently lead to faster increases in the organic loading rate (OLR) of an upflow anaerobic sludge bed (UASB) wastewater treatment system and it is necessary to know if the treatment system can handle such drastic increases over short periods. The objective of the study were to evaluate the efficiency of the UASB process in the treatment of an AJPWW; to determine what effect a substrate viscosity increase, based on a pectin calcium gel has on the performance of an UASB system, and to determine what impact ozonation has on the pectin content, gelformation ability and biodegradability of the AJPWW. The ability of the UASB to maintain stability during the apple-processing season was investigated by increasing the OLR from 2.9 to over 14.0 kg COD.m-3.d-1 in 131 days. During this time the COD removal remained constant at 85%, while the pH and alkalinity remained at levels indicative of good reactor stability. It was thus concluded that the UASB reactor could operate successfully during the apple-harvesting season when wastewater volumes and organic loads increase significantly. In the study it was found that the viscosity of the AJPWW, containing 750 mq.L-1 pectin, increased from 8.5 to 47.0 cps after a 312 rnq.L-1 Ca2 + addition. This increased viscosity substrate was then fed to an UASB reactor at an OLR of 15.0 kg COD.m-3.d-1. During a 12 day increased viscosity (47 cps) feeding stage the COD removal decreased from 94 to 11%, while the reactor pH decreased from 7.5 to 4.9. During this period, pectin accumulated in the UASB and led to biomass washout and rapid UASB failure. The possible elimination of pectin by ozonation was thus investigated, and a 77% decrease in pectin content and 76% decrease in gel formation ability occurred after ozonation. The effect of pre- and post-ozonation on the efficiency of the UASB system was subsequently investigated. It was found that a 10 min pre-ozonation decreased the AJPWW COD by 19% and the total suspended content by 36%, while the soluble portion of the total COD was increased from 81.7 to 92.4%. This increase in soluble COD content should lead to increased wastewater biodegradability. The ozonated AJPWW was then used to replaced the raw non-ozonated AJPWW as reactor feed. Results showed that the COD removal increased from 78 to 90% within 24 h of starting with the ozonated feed. It was also found that the reactor stability improved after AJPWW pre-ozonation as an OLR increase from 10.0 to 16.6 kg COD.m-3.d-1 in 23 days did not detrimentally influence the stability of the reactor. This reactor effluent (COD = 465 rnq.L-1) was then post-ozonated which resulted in 64.8% COD and 79.0% colour reductions. The final effluent had a COD of 180 rnq.L-1 (98% reduction). The ability of the ozonation/digestion system as described in this study to degrade AJPWW at a higher OLR is of value to the apple industry, as it may lead to larger organic pollutant removals and thus a more effiecient treatment system. Increased reactor performance will directly improve the quality of the final wastewater produced, which in turn will have a significant impact on the treatment ability of the South African apple processing industry currently limited by the production of large wastewater volumes. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Gedurende die oesseisoen word groot volumes afvalwater met 'n hoe organiese lading in die vinnig groeiende Suid-Afrikaanse appelsapprosesseringsbedryf geproduseer. Dit het 'n groot impak op die omgewing. Die groter volumes appelsapprosesseringsafvalwater (ASPAW) met 'n hoë organiese lading het 'n vinniger verhoging in organiese ladingstempo's (OLT) van 'n UASB-waterbehandelingstelsel tot gevolg. Daarom is dit belangrik om te weet of die stelsel die drastiese verhoging oor kort tydperke kan hanteer. Die doel van hierdie studie was die evaluering van die effektiwiteit van die UASB-proses in die behandeling van ASPAW; om te bepaal watter effek 'n substraatviskositeitsverhoging, gebaseer op 'n pektien-kalsium-jel, op die doeltreffendheid van 'n UASB-stelsel het; en om te bepaal watter impak osonering op die pektieninhoud, jelvormingsvermoe en bioafbreekbaarheid van ASPAW het. Die vermoe van die UASB om stabiliteit te handhaaf gedurende die appelsapprosesseringseisoen is ondersoek deur die OLT van 2,9 tot bo 14,0 kg CSB.m-3.d-1 te verhoog oor 131 dae. Gedurende hierdie tyd het die chemiese suurstofbehoefte- (CSB-) verwydering konstant gebly by 85%, terwyl die pH en alkaliniteit ook op vlakke aanduidend van goeie reaktorstabiliteit gebly het. Daar is sodoende bewys dat die UASB-reaktor suksesvol kan presteer tydens die appelsapprosesseringseisoen, wanneer daar 'n beduidende verhoging in OLT plaasvind. In die studie is daar gevind dat die viskositeit van die ASPAW, wat 750 mq.L-1 pektien bevat, van 8,5 tot 47,0 cps toeneem na die byvoeging van 312 rnq.L-1 Ca2+. Hierdie verhoogde vikositeitsubstraat is tot die UASB-reaktor toegevoeg teen 'n OLT van 15,0 kg CSB.m-1.d-1. Gedurende 'n 12-dae toevoer van verhoogde viskositeit (47 cps), het die CSB-verwydering van die reaktor afgeneem van 94% na 11%, terwyl die pH gedaal het van 7,5 na 4,9. Gedurende hierdie tydperk het pektien in die UASB geakkumuleer, wat gelei het tot die uitspoel van biomassa en vinnige UASB-reaktormislukking. Die moontlike eliminasie van pektien, deur osonering, is daarom ondersoek. 'n Verlaging van 77% in pektieninhoud en 76% in jelvormingsvermoe het na osonering plaasgevind. Die effek van pre- en post-osonering op die effektiwiteit van 'n UASB-stelsel is gevolglik ondersoek. Daar is gevind dat 'n 10 minute pre-osonering die CSB van die ASPAW met 19% verlaag en die totale inhoud van gesuspendeerde vaste stowwe met 36% verlaag, terwyl die oplosbare gedeelte van die totale CSB van 81,7% tot 92,4% gestyg het. Die verhoging in oplosbare CSB-inhoud behoort tot verhoogde bioafbreekbaarheid van ASPAW te lei. Die geosoneerde ASPAW is gebruik om die rou, ongeosoneerde ASPAW as reaktorsubstraat te vervang. Die resultate het getoon dat die CSB-verwydering verhoog het van 78% na 90% na 'n 24-uur toevoer van geosoneerde substraat. Daar is ook gevind dat die reaktorstabiliteit toegeneem het na ASPAW osoneering, aangesien 'n OLT-verhoging van 10,0 na 16,6 kg.CSB.m-3.d-1 in 23 dae nie die stabiliteit van die reaktor nadelig beinvloed het nie. Hierdie reaktoruitvloeisel (CSB = 465 rnq.L-1) is hierna gepost-osoneer, wat 'n 64,8% CSB- en 79,0% kleurverlaging tot gevolg gehad. Die finale uitvloeisel het 'n CBS-inhoud van 180 rnq.L-1 gehad (98,1% verwydering). Die vermoe van die osonering-/verteringstelsel om ASPAW te degradeer teen 'n hoër OLT, soos beskryf in hierdie studie, is van waarde tot die appelsapprosesseringsbedryf, aangesien dit tot groter organiese afvalstofverwydering kan lei en dus 'n meer effektiewe behandelingstelsel tot gevolg kan hê. Verhoogde reaktordoeltreffendheid sal 'n direkte verbetering tot gevolg hê in die gehalte van die finale afvalwater wat geproduseer word, wat op sy beurt 'n beduidende impak sal hê op die behandelingsvermoe van die appelsapprosesseringsbedryf, wat tans beperk word deur die produksie van groot volumes afvalwater.

Waterborne diarrhoeal infections continue to be a major health setback in developing countries, especially in rural areas which lack adequate supply of portable water and sanitation facilities. Globally, waterborne diarrhoeal infections occur with an estimated mortality rate of 10–25 million deaths per year, 95% of which are children under the age of 5 years. The Vibrio species is one of the major groups of enteric pathogens that are responsible for diarrhoeal infections. Many strains of these bacterial species continue to cause epidemics of diarrhoea throughout the world. In this study, the prevalence of Vibrio pathogens in wastewater final effluents was assessed. Wastewater final effluent and discharge point samples were collected monthly between September 2012 and August 2013. All samples were collected aseptically using sterile 1 L Nalgene bottles containing 0.5 ml of sterile sodium thiosulphate solution and transported on ice to the laboratory for analyses within 6 h of collection. The membrane filtration method was used for enumeration of presumptive Vibrio densities on thiosulfate citrate bile salt (TCBS) agar plates. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was then used to confirm the identities of the presumptive Vibrio species using the species-specific primers. The confirmed isolates were further subjected to molecular characterization to confirm their respective pathotypes. Presumptive Vibrio densities varied from 0 to 2.11 × 102 cfu/100 ml. Out of 300 confirmed Vibrio isolates; 13.3% (40/300) were Vibrio fluvialis, 22% (66/300) were confirmed to be Vibrio parahaemolyticus, and 24.7% (74/300) proved to be Vibrio vulnificus, and 40% (120/300) were other Vibrio species which were not assessed for in this study. The strains of Vibrio fluvialis were found to exhibit 100% resistance to Polymixin and Tetracycline. However, Gentamicin was active against all the three Vibrio species selected for the purpose of this research. The recovery of Vibrio species in the discharged effluents throughout the sampling period even in adequately disinfected effluents is not acceptable considering the fact that Vibrio is a pathogenic bacterium. The findings of this study underline the need for constant monitoring of the microbiological qualities of discharged effluents and might also be suggestive for a review of the disinfection methods used at the treatment works.

Integrated Algae Pond Systems (IAPS) are a derivation of the Oswald designed Algal Integrated Wastewater Pond Systems (AIWPS®) and combine the use of anaerobic and aerobic bioprocesses to effect wastewater treatment. IAPS technology was introduced to South Africa in 1996 and a pilot plant designed and commissioned at the Belmont Valley WWTW in Grahamstown. The system has been in continual use since implementation and affords a secondarily treated water for reclamation according to its design specifications which most closely resemble those of the AIWPS® Advanced Secondary Process developed by Oswald. As a consequence, and as might be expected, while the technology performed well and delivered a final effluent superior to most pond systems deployed in South Africa it was unable to meet The Department of Water Affairs General Standard for nutrient removal and effluent discharge. The work described in this thesis involved the design, construction, and evaluation of several tertiary treatment units (TTU') for incorporation into the IAPS process design. Included were; Maturation Ponds (MP), Slow Sand Filter (SSF) and Rock Filters (RF). Three MP's were constructed in series with a 12 day retention time and operated in parallel with a two-layered SSF and a three-stage RF. Water quality of the effluent emerging from each of these TTU's was monitored over a 10 month period. Significant decreases in the chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonium-N, phosphate-P, nitrate-N, faecal coliforms (FC) and total coliforms (TC) were achieved by these TTU's. On average, throughout the testing period, water quality was within the statutory limit for discharge to a water course that is not a listed water course, with the exception of the total suspended solids (TSS). The RF was determined as the most suitable TTU for commercial use due to production of a better quality water, smaller footprint, lower construction costs and less maintenance required. From the results of this investigation it is concluded that commercial deployment of IAPS for the treatment of municipal sewage requires the inclusion of a suitable TTU. Furthermore, and based on the findings presented, RF appears most appropriate to ensure that quality of the final effluent meets the standard for discharge.

The production of final effluents that meet discharged requirements and guidelines remain a major challenge particularly in the developing world with the resultant problem of surface water pollution. This study assessed the physicochemical and microbiological qualities of two wastewater treatment works in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa in terms of the prevalence of faecal coliforms and Escherichia coli O157:H7 over a five month period. All physicochemical and microbiological analyses were carried out using standard methods. Data were collected in triplicates and analysed statistically using IBM SPSS version 20.0. The ranges of some of the physicochemical parameters that complied with set guidelines include pH (6.7 – 7.6), TDS (107 – 171 mg/L), EC (168 – 266 μS/cm), Temperature (15 – 24oC), NO3- (0 – 8.2 mg/L), NO2- (0.14 – 0.71 mg/L) and PO4 (1.05 – 4.50 mg/L). Others including Turbidity (2.64 – 58.00 NTU), Free Cl (0.13 – 0.65 mg/L), DO (2.20 – 8.48 mg/L), BOD (0.13 – 6.85 mg/L) and COD (40 – 482 mg/L) did not comply with set guidelines. The microbiological parameters ranged 0 – 2.7 × 104 CFU/100 ml for FC and 0 – 9.3 × 103 for EHEC CFU/100 ml, an indication of non-compliance with set guidelines. Preliminary identification of 40 randomly selected presumptive enterohemorrhagic E. coli isolates by Gram’s staining and oxidase test shows 100% (all 40 selected isolates) to be Gram positive while 90% (36 randomly selected isolates) were oxidase negative. Statistical correlation between the physicochemical and the microbiological parameters were generally weak except in the case of free chlorine and DO where they showed inverse correlation with the microbiological parameters. The recovery of EHEC showed the inefficiency of the treatment processes to effectively inactivate the bacteria, and possibly other pathogenic bacteria that may be present in the treated wastewater. The assessment suggested the need for proper monitoring and a review of the treatment procedures used at these treatment works.

Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a common inhabitant of surface waters in the developed and developing worlds. The majority of E. coli cells present in water are not particularly pathogenic to humans; however, there are some present in small proportion that possess virulence genes that allow them to colonize the digestive tract. Pathogenic E. coli causes acute and chronic diarrheal diseases, especially among children in developing countries and in travelers in these locales. The present study, conducted between August 2007 and July 2008, investigated the prevalence and distribution of virulent E. coli strains as either free or attached cells in the final effluents of three wastewater treatment plants located in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa and its impact on the physico-chemical quality of the receiving water body. The wastewater treatment plants are located in urban (East Bank Reclamation Works, East London), peri-urban (Dimbaza Sewage Treatment Works) and in rural area (Alice Sewage Treatment Works). The effluent quality of the treatment plants were acceptable with respect to pH (6.9-7.8), temperature (13.8-22.0 °C), dissolved oxygen (DO) (4.9-7.8 mg/L), salinity (0.12-0.17 psu), total dissolved solids (TDS) (119-162 mg/ L) and nitrite concentration (0.1-0.4 mg/l). The other xii physicochemical parameters that did not comply with regulated standards include the following: phosphate (0.1-4.0 mg/L); chemical oxygen demand (COD) (5-211 mg/L); electrical conductivity (EC) (237-325 μS/cm) and Turbidity (7.7-62.7 NTU). Results suggest that eutrophication is intensified in the vicinity of the effluent discharge points, where phosphate and nitrate were found in high concentrations. Presumptive E. coli was isolated from the effluent samples by culture-based methods and confirmed using Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) techniques. Antibiogram assay was also carried out using standard in vitro methods on Mueller Hinton agar. The viable counts of presumptive E. coli for the effluent samples associated with 180 μm plankton size ranged between 0 – 4.30 × 101 cfu/ml in Dimbaza, 0 – 3.88 × 101 cfu/ml in Alice and 0 – 8.00 × 101 cfu/ml in East London. In the 60 μm plankton size category E. coli densities ranged between 0 and 4.2 × 101 cfu/ml in Dimbaza, 0 and 2.13 × 101 cfu/ml in Alice and 0 and 8.75 × 101 cfu/ml in East London. Whereas in the 20 μm plankton size category presumptive E. coli density varied from 0 to 5.0 × 101 cfu/ml in Dimbaza, 0 to 3.75 × 101 cfu/ml in Alice and 0 to 9.0 × 101 cfu/ml in East London. The free-living presumptive E. coli density ranged between 0 and 3.13 × 101 cfu/ml in Dimbaza, between 0 and 8.0 × 101 cfu/ml in Alice and between 0 and 9.5 × 101 cfu/ml in East London. Molecular analysis successfully amplified target genes (fliCH7, rfbEO157, ial and aap) which are characteristic of pathogenic E. coli strains. The PCR assays using uidA-specific primer confirmed that a genetic region homologous in size to the E. coli uidA structural gene, including the regulatory region, was present in 3 of the E. coli isolates from Alice, 10 from Dimbaza and 8 from East London. Of the 3 E. coli isolates from Alice, 1 (33.3%) was positive for the fliCH7 genes and 3 was positive for rfbEO157 genes. Out of the 10 isolates from Dimbaza, 4 were xiii positive for fliCH7 genes, 6 were positive for the rfbEO157 genes and 1 was positive for the aap genes; and of the 8 isolates from East London, 1 was positive for fliCH7 genes, 2 were for the rfbEO157 genes, 6 were positive for the ial genes. Antimicrobial susceptibility profile revealed that all of the E. coli strains isolated from the effluent water samples were resistant (R) to linezolid, polymyxin B, penicillin G and sulfamethoxazole. The E. coli isolates from Dimbaza (9/10) and East London (8/8) respectively were resistant to erythromycin. All the isolates were found to be susceptible (S) to amikacin, ceftazidime, ciprofloxacin, colistin sulphate, ceftriaxone, cefotaxime, cefuroxime, ertapenem, gatifloxacin, gentamycin, imidazole, kanamycin, meropenem, moxifloxacin, neomycin, netilmicin, norfloxacin and tobramycin. The findings of this study revealed that the Alice wastewater treatment plant was the most efficient as it produced the final effluent with the least pathogenic E. coli followed by the Dimbaza wastewater treatment plant. In addition, the findings showed that the wastewater treatment plant effluents are a veritable source of pathogenic E. coli in the Eastern Cape Province watershed. We suggest that to maximize public health protection, treated wastewater effluent quality should be diligently monitored pursuant to ensuring high quality of final effluents.