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The present study examined the emotional responses of 112 dyads of same-sex friends in early and middle childhood as they competed against each other on 3 identical games, enabling each child in the pair to experience 3 outcome conditions: winning, losing, and tying. Emotional reactions were videotaped and rated for degree of enjoyment and discomfort. In addition, following the 3 games, children were individually interviewed and asked to report their levels of happiness regarding winning, losing, and tying. The social context of a dyad is more closely associated with female social interaction which tends to be egalitarian. It was hypothesized that boys' well-documented greater comfort with competition relative to girls would be attenuated in the context of a dyad. Results indicated that boys showed more comfort and enjoyment throughout the competitive process than did girls. However, both boys and girls showed equal levels of comfort and enjoyment for the win and tie outcomes, indicating boys, like girls, were also concerned with doing the same as their friend. A developmental difference was also seen as the children in middle childhood reported less happiness than the kindergarten children when they experienced the win outcome. The results are discussed in terms of the necessity of considering the social context in which competition occurs when investigating gender differences in competition.

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Recent genetic studies indicate an association between Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and the dopamine transporter gene (DAT1) with possible preferential relation to hyperactivity and impulsivity behaviours. The present study investigated attention-related behaviours in a non-clinical sample to determine whether the modulation of these behaviours is associated with genetic variability of the DAT1 within the normal population. A secondary question explored whether gender was associated with the measured attention-related behaviours. Twenty-six children were observed in the classroom during performance of independent academic work. Motor behaviours during task performance were scored using the Restricted Academic Situation Scale. Major behavioural problems were scored using the Conners' Teacher Rating Scale-Revised: Short Form (CTRS-R:S). All participants were genotyped for the DAT1. The results yielded no significant genotype group differences, although an association was found between oppositional behaviour (CTRS-R:S) and gender. These preliminary results are discussed within the current context of genetics research in ADHD.

In Experiment 1 preschool children were videotaped playing in groups of same-sex friends. Responses to Vulnerability were coded and content analyzed. Sex differences were examined to explore whether girls display more responses to Vulnerability than boys and whether girls and boys differ in Responses to Vulnerability in their play. No sex differences were found in amount of time responding to Vulnerability; however, some support was found for sex differences in types of Responses to Vulnerability. / Experiment 2 experimentally examined girls' and boys' preferences for vignettes representing Categories of Response to the same Vulnerability Situation: Dominant Mastery, Nurturant Mastery, and Sharing Problems. Preferences for two Vulnerability Situations were examined. Boys were expected to show a preference for Dominant Mastery responses and girls a preference for Sharing Problems as well as Nurturant Mastery responses. Several marginally significant results were found. Discussion focuses on adult consequences and implications for later male and female interactions.

The current study explored gender differences in groups of boys and girls in a limited resource context. Forty same-sex groups of four children from kindergarten and grade four were observed during sessions in which groups played first with two different toys and then two different games. The toy and game sessions were constructed so children had to negotiate for a scarce resource (attractive toy and game winner's certificate). In the case of one of the toys the end of a player's turn was obvious to group members (explicit turn-taking toy), in the case of the other toy the end of a turn was not obvious to group members (nonexplicit turn-taking toy). Resource use (time with toy), group variability in resource use, positive affect and self-report measures were collected. Results of the toy sessions revealed both genders were very similar on all the measures; however, girls were significantly more likely to have greater group variance in distributing the nonexplicit turn-taking toy. The two games, one competitive and one noncompetitive, involved players trying to reach a finish line. For the competitive game, only one player could win, but for the noncompetitive game all players could win. During both games, a player could potentially interfere with another player's goal to win. Resource use (interfering), group variability in resource use, positive affect and self-report measures were collected. Results of the game sessions revealed both genders were very similar on all measures, however, during the competitive game, girls were more likely to have greater group variance in interfering. The results are discussed in terms of considering aspects of the context when investigating gender differences in competition.

Past research has provided conflicting results concerning sex differences in the desire for status. The current study was designed to examine more explicitly sex differences in the desire to attain status. Eighty girls and 80 boys from kindergarten and grade four were placed in groups of four same-sex friends and were observed during a session in which they had to choose a leader, as well as during a drawing task. The children were also interviewed following the tasks using a questionnaire format. Results showed that there were no sex differences in the number of volunteers to be leader, in the length of time to negotiate who would be the leader, in the degree of positive affect expressed while choosing a leader, or in the degree of involvement in the negotiation of who would be the leader. Results suggest that based on this one study in which status was defined as leadership, no sex differences exist in the desire to attain status, although leadership styles may vary. Results are discussed in terms of the implications of the desire for status for the personality development of females and males.

The current study was designed to examine sex differences in group interaction in early childhood. Seven classes of four-year old children and six classes of five-year-old participated as subjects. Thirteen playgroups of 6 girls and 6 boys each were formed. Analyses of the girls' and boys' interactions showed that there was a marginally significant trend for girls to engage in more Simultaneous Group Interaction than boys. Analyses of a second measure, Coordinated Group Activity, demonstrated that boys, after five years of age, were found to engage in significantly more group interaction than girls. Findings revealed that in early childhood, males and females differ in their modes of interaction with peers (ie, their social structure), with age five as a transition period for males.

The Ideal Standards Model (Simpson, Fletcher and Campbell, 2001) suggests that individuals regulate themselves and their partners based on how closely their perceptions match their ideal standards. Overall, Fletcher and Simpson (2006) provided empirical support for the regulatory function of the Ideal Standards Model and concluded that standards which may initiate regulation reflect three pivotal domains; warmth/trustworthiness, attractiveness/vitality and status/resources. In Study 1, 150 individuals (in heterosexual relationships or had been in the previous six months) spontaneously reported prior regulatory attempts that had focused on changing themselves, their partner or their relationship. Participants then described their most salient regulatory attempt in detail and rated the success of this attempt. In Study 2, 96 individuals (in heterosexual relationships) self-rated various personality and relationship characteristics. Participants also indicated how they would likely respond (using a set of likert scales) to partner initiated regulation attempts which were provided via vignette descriptions. As predicted, results indicated (a) that regulatory attempts reflect the pivotal domains of the Ideal Standards Model, (b) predicted gender differences in the use of regulation, (c) increased regulatory success with the use of interpersonal strategies and (d) increased relationship quality with less negative reactions to regulatory attempts. Results also indicated that women were more likely to respond negatively than men, particularly when the regulation attempt focused on their attractiveness. Implication and explanations are discussed.

The Positive Predictive Value (PPV) of the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (M-CHAT), a parent report autism screening tool, is higher for males than for females (Ludwig et al., IMFAR 2011). Given the long waitlists and high costs for ASD evaluations, there is a need to reduce the number of false positive females on the M-CHAT. The current study examined the sex specific clinical profiles of toddlers who received an ASD evaluation based on M-CHAT screen positive status in order to explore potential differences that may contribute to the differential PPV of the M-CHAT in boys and girls. The sample included 250 males and 106 females (mean age=25.3 months, SD=4.6) who were evaluated based on screen positive status on the M-CHAT. Although children with ASD demonstrated greater ASD symptoms, lower IQ and weaker language and motor skills, minimal sex differences were discovered.