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The focus of the present study was the measurement of attitudes toward people acting in an assertive manner, compared to those who are acting in an aggressive or passive manner. Earlier studies suggest there are several mitigating factors on social judgments of assertiveness. These include: sex of the assertor (model), sex of the subject, the assertion situation, and the degree of empathy or consideration in the assertive response. The present study sought to investigate the roles of subject sex, model sex, and situation on social judgments of assertiveness. Further, an empathic assertive condition was included to allow a comparison between ratings of empathic assertive and assertive responses. The empathic assertive response paired assertiveness with extra consideration and understanding toward the other person.Each of 150 university undergraduate subjects (75 men and 75 women) reviewed one written vignette from each of four situations (i.e., work, class lecture, telephone solicitation, dating). Model sex and behavioral response style were randomly assigned. A 26 item personality inventory (Interpersonal Attraction Inventory) was completed by each subject for each vignette.Significant main effects were revealed for both behavioral response style and situation. Subject ratings of behavioral response style were as follows, from least to most favorable: aggressive, passive, assertive, and empathic-assertive. Subject ratings of situation were as follows, from least to most favorable: date, telephone solicitor, work, lecture. The only significant interaction was between behavioral response style and situation. There were no significant main effects or interactions for subject sex or model sex.The present results contradict earlier studies in which passive women were rated significantly more positively than assertive women. Given the time elapsed between the present data collection (1993) and the majority of earlier studies (1987 and earlier) it is possible that sex role change is responsible. In addition, results indicate that what was referred to as empathic assertion in the present study may be a socially distinct class of behavior from assertive behavior. Clearly more research is required in order to confirm a societal sex role change, differences between assertiveness and empathic assertiveness, and generalizability of the present results. / Department of Counseling Psychology and Guidance Services

One goal of communicating with others can be to gain their compliance, essentially to get someone else to do what we want them to do. The techniques used and communicative messages chosen to accomplish this goal can vary widely. This study investigated the effects of gender, self-esteem, age, and relationship on compliancegaining strategy selection. Two hypotheses and three research ·questions were addressed in this study. Hypothesis One predicted males would be more likely to select anti-social compliance-gaining strategies in a social setting when trying to influence other males and pro-social compliance strategies when trying to influence females. Hypothesis Two predicted women will select more pro-social compliance-gaining strategies in social settings with both males and females. Three research questions examined the effect of interactant age, relationship (interpersonal or noninterpersonal) and self-esteem on the selection of compliance gaining strategies. The total sample size was 161 college students drawn from a medium-sized, private university in the western United States. Students were enrolled in one of four communication courses. A factor analysis was first employed to reduce the Weisman and Schenk-Hamlin Compliance Gaining typology into pro- and anti-social strategies, so that Hypothesis One could be addressed. However, after the analysis showed that the thirteen strategies used did not fall into two discrete categories as originally anticipated, a t-test was used to evaluate each strategy individually. An analysis of variance was used to determine interaction effects among gender, age, self:esteem, and compliance-gaining strategy. At-test was employed for analysis ofhypothesis two to determine gender differences in strategy selection. All research questions utilized regression analysis to determine the existence of a relationship between the individual variables of age, relationship, and self-esteem on compliancegaining strategy. Results for Hypothesis One showed no significant difference in male research participants' selection of compliance-gaining strategies for both male and female targets. Results for Hypothesis Two indicated female research participants used the 'allurement' strategy more than males with both male and female targets. No significant difference in strategy usage for the remaining 12 strategies resulted. Results for the three research questions showed significant interaction effects for the strategies of ingratiation, promise, allurement, aversive stimulation, threat, altruism, and hinting.

Communication problems and conflict may occur between partners in intimate dyads when systematic gender differences in language contribute to misinterpretations. This research investigated effects of gender on interpretations of hypothetical conversations between dyads, and also on judgments of likelihood of conflict.

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Women's and men's responses regarding perceived speaker sex and the politeness of given utterances were examined through the use of a questionnaire administered to 90 people, 45 men and 45 women. The questionnaire required respondents to rate the politeness of each utterance and label each as being more likely spoken by a man or by a woman. Factors possibly affecting perceptions--such as power, prestige, and the stereotypical conversational structures of both men and women--were addressed through others' research in this area. Additionally, all tested sentences were analyzed in light of linguistic politeness theory regarding on-record and off-record speech. This analysis details each utterance through examining the type of politeness strategy each utterance typifies.