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Unacknowledged rape- having an experience that, if true, legally would be considered rape, but not conceptualizing it as rape, or sometimes even a victimization, is a common and understudied phenomenon. The present study sought to examine a coping model regarding unacknowledged rape. In this model, not acknowledging rape is viewed, in part, as a response to experiencing a number of negative consequences as a result of the assault, such as negative social reactions and feelings of responsibility. In addition, it is hypothesized that unacknowledged victims may turn to maladaptive coping techniques to cope with this assault, and not acknowledging the rape may aid in facilitating and justifying these attempts at coping, once initiated. Therefore, it was hypothesized that unacknowledged victims, compared to acknowledged victims, would suffer more negative consequences after the assault and they would use more maladaptive, avoidance coping. To test these hypotheses, an online survey was developed. A total of 1,253 university women drawn from the psychology department participant pool over three semesters, completed the survey. Of these, 256, or 20.4% of the sample reported having an experience consistent with a legal definition of rape. Sixty percent did not consider this experience to be a victimization and thus were classified as unacknowledged rape victims. Replicating previous research, unacknowledged victims suffered less violent assaults and also had consumed more alcohol during the assault. However, the results overall did not support the proposed model. There were few differences in the amount of negative consequences experienced by acknowledged and unacknowledged victims. In addition, the results suggested that being an unacknowledged victim was not associated with increased reliance on avoidance coping. Instead, acknowledged victims engaged in more of all coping strategies, perhaps because acknowledged assaults tended to produce slightly more severe posttraumatic symptoms. Several possible future directions were therefore proposed including a focus on cognitive and memory variables in rape acknowledgment as well as a focus on what leads women to acknowledge an assault, given that not acknowledging rape is the normative response to this type of victimization. / Ph. D.

The percentage of rape victims who do not seek social support after rape is alarming, particularly given the potential consequences of not seeking help. The present study attempts to address the dilemma of rape and attempted rape victims' lack of support seeking through a two-phase online intervention designed to encourage them to seek treatment. The study manipulates factors involved in characterizing oneself as a rape victim and in seeking help for problems resulting from rape. It was hypothesized that victims who received the intervention would seek counseling more than victims in a wait-list control group. Participants were 1322 women ranging in age from 17 to 39 from a large, southeastern university. Of these women, 344, or 26% of the sample, reported an experience consistent with a legal definition of rape or attempted rape. Unfortunately, it was not possible to fully examine the proposed model in this study, as hypothesized differences between intervention and control subjects did not exist. However, interesting trends developed collapsing across treatment groups. While few participants sought formal help, almost three-fourths sought informal help and almost half sought information about counseling. These findings are made even more salient by the large number of non-recent victims who sought help for the first time. Taking part in the study itself appeared to encourage victims who had gone without help for some time to actually seek help. In addition, higher levels of distress were associated with seeking help, as were higher levels of negative social reactions, stigma, and self-blame. Perceived need for help was found to mediate the relationship between distress and intent to seek help. Limitations and suggestions for future research are discussed. / Ph. D.

The state of Utah has sexual assault rates consistently higher than the national average. Following sexual assaults, victims are advised to seek health care services with evidence collected and packaged in sexual assault kits (SAKs). This large (N=1,874), retrospective study examined rates of sexual assault kit (SAK) submissions by law enforcement (LE) to the state crime laboratory for analysis at four sites in Utah with established sexual assault nurse examiner (SANE) programs on SAKs collected from 2010 to 2013. Variables of legal and extralegal characteristics in sexual assault cases were explored through GEE modeling to determine what factors predicted SAK submissions. For submitted SAKs, the length of time between the dates of assault and dates of submission were categorized and bivariate and multivariate analyses calculated to discover legal and extralegal characteristics affecting time of submission. The four study sites in Utah represented 40% of Utah LE agencies and 65% of the state’s population. Out of the 1,874 SAKs in the study, only 38.2% were submitted by LE to the state crime laboratory for analysis. When SAK submissions were examined based upon time between assaults and submission dates, 22.8% were submitted within a year of the assault and 15.4% were submitted more than a year after the assault following media and community pressure for LE agencies to submit SAKs in storage. Significant variability of SAK submission rates and the time submitted from the assault dates were found between the four sites. Site location was found to be the main determinant of whether or not SAKs were submitted. The lack of SAK submissions for analysis results in justice denied for victims and raises public safety concerns. The finding that the location in which the sexual assault occurred was the primary factor on SAK submissions represents an inequity of justice. / School of Nursing; / Nursing / PhD; / Dissertation;

Thesis advisor: Ann W. Burgess / Sexual assault (SA) is the most widely underreported violent crime in the United States. Reporting is significant because it is through this process that people access resources that can mitigate psychiatric and other health consequences of SA. The purpose of this study was to describe regret among individuals who have experienced SA regarding their decision of whether or not to report the assault to the police. The Ottawa Decision Support Framework underpins this study and posits that evaluation of regret, a powerful negative emotion, influences the decision-making process. The sample included 78 individuals, 18-25 years, who experienced SA during the past five years. Participants completed a 34-item, electronic questionnaire. A multiple regression model was generated to describe how selected independent variables explain variation in levels of regret. In the final model, the following, combined independent variables accounted for 33.3% (adjusted R2) of the variation in levels of regret: Weight change, the only variable associated with increased regret, was the most significant and accounted for the greatest amount of variance, followed by stranger assailant, seeking professional treatment, and reporting, which were associated with decreased regret. On average, people who chose to report their assault experienced less regret regarding their decision to do so as compared to people who did not report. This research fills a gap in the nursing, psychiatric, and victimology literature and improves clinical practice by describing post-decisional regret. The findings from this study provide a foundation for future research on the development of strategies (e.g., the development of decision-making tools) that nurses and other clinicians can use to assist people with their decision-making. Additionally, the findings can contribute to the development of a midrange, nursing theory of regret. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2010. / Submitted to: Boston College. Connell School of Nursing. / Discipline: Nursing.

Thesis advisor: Heather T. Rowan-Kenyon / The purpose of this study on university handling of Campus Sexual Assault (CSA) was to understand the experiences of Title IX Coordinators as key administrators in this work. CSA continues to be a pervasive problem, and the dialogue on campuses and externally is highly contentious. Guidance from the federal government, combined with a recent surge in lawsuits against universities, have created a precarious legal context for CSA that is exceedingly difficult for universities to manage. How institutions handle the array of moving parts with CSA is largely absent from the current literature. This study interviewed university Title IX Coordinators, who are responsible for overseeing the institutional response to CSA and therefore are uniquely positioned to offer insight into how universities are handling the problem and the internal and external factors that are playing a role. Sixteen interviews were conducted of Title IX Coordinators responsible for overseeing student CSA matters at NCAA Division I institutions. The research questions guiding this study included: (a) how do Title IX Coordinators handle and carry out their responsibilities related to CSA; what shapes the ways in which Title IX Coordinators handle their responsibilities related to CSA, and (b) how does university culture influence Title IX Coordinators’ work related to CSA? The theory that emerged from the data indicates that Title IX Coordinators have an array of complexities to navigate in their CSA work, stemming from an interplay of both internal and external pressures and factors, that can lead to a range of outcomes that are most often negative. Using grounded theory methodological procedures, a theory and visual model were generated to explain the interactions among the following components: Title IX Coordinator values and priorities; processes involved in CSA work; university culture and structure; collaboration with and management of university partners; the legal landscape and external context; and case outcomes and Title IX Coordinator impact. The theory has implications for policy, for Title IX Coordinators and universities, and for future research. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2019. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Leadership and Higher Education.