D.Litt. et Phil. / Incidence and prevalence rates of child sexual abuse and incest are shockingly high. Children of both genders are sexually abused every 25 minutes in South Africa. This abuse results in emotional, spiritual, social, interpersonal, sexual, psychosomatic, neurological and cognitive disturbances. Many of these consequences persist into adulthood. Adult survivors do not always link their symptoms or problems with their childhood sexual abuse experiences. Those that do seek help for those symptoms only in adulthood. Specialised treatment models have been developed for adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. These treatment approaches neglect the spiritual consequences of childhood sexual abuse and have overlooked the value of incorporating the religious or spiritual beliefs of clients into the therapy. Hypnotherapeutic strategies have been successful in treating traumatic conditions, yet, they are not intended for treatment of adult survivors of childhood incest and sexual abuse. This study results in an understanding of the long-term spiritual consequences of adult abuse survivors. A treatment approach, integrating concepts of existing abuse focused models, hypnotherapeutic strategies and the spiritual beliefs of clients is developed to compensate for the aforementioned limitations. To enhance the treatment outcome, principles of Tibetan psychology and rational-emotive therapy were integrated into the treatment approach. The experiences of five female adult survivors’ of the long-term spiritual consequences of the abuse, and their experiences of the hypnotherapeutic approach was assessed in a pilot study. Questions regarding the consequences of the abuse, hypnosis and spirituality were included in the pilot study questionnaire. The results obtained from this study were integrated into the intervention study. The intervention study also consisted of five adult females and the therapy process was defined with reference to the long-term consequences and strategies comprising five modalities (spiritual concepts, Tibetan psychology, cognitive therapy, hypnotherapy, and existing incest focused treatment models). The data obtained from the pilot and intervention studies were qualitatively analysed within an action research methodology. The action research approach consists of four action research cycles. The first cycle comprised the literature review; the second the pilot study; the third the intervention study, and; the fourth, an integration of the above cycles. Findings obtained from the pilot study showed that participants do suffer serious long-term spiritual consequences as a result of having been sexually abused as children. Participants of the pilot study unanimously concluded that the hypnotherapeutic strategies made the therapy more meaningful for them. This corresponds with findings from clinically researched studies. Participants particularly benefited from their visualisations, their self-hypnosis audio-tapes, breathing techniques and from the integration of their personal spiritual beliefs and visualisations into the therapy. The hypnotic trance resulted in greater recall of childhood memories. The interpersonal functioning of the participants improved as well as feelings of guilt, sadness, fear and anger. Conclusions drawn from the interventions study indicate that the synthesis of strategies obtained from the four modalities proved to be a valuable therapeutic treatment approach with adult survivors of childhood sexual abuse. As a direct result of the therapy clients were able to heal many negative consequences of the abuse. Clients established healthier interpersonal boundaries, resolved feelings of sadness, fear, aggression, resentment and self-doubt. A few clients formed healthier body-images, became more assertive and self-confident. Certain clients were able to forgive the perpetrators and others found it easier to interact with the perpetrators after their therapy. Furthermore, clients were able to find meaning in their abuse experiences and some decided to be of service to mankind after their therapy. This study is a comprehensive guideline for professionals working with such survivors. Findings in this study may assist professionals to acquire an understanding of the experience of childhood sexual abuse and hypnotherapy as experienced by female survivors. It provides insight into the long-term psychological and spiritual consequences suffered from the abuse. It is hoped that the findings of this study will inform future research, contribute towards theory-building in this field, and assist professionals with their clinical practices. / Prof. W.J. Schoeman Dr. R. Pelser.

Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is associated with negative outcomes in adulthood, including difficulty in relationships. Research has posited CSA may lead to insecure attachment in survivors, which may be the vehicle by which dysfunctional parent-child relationships develop. The purpose of the proposed study was to examine differences in parenting outcomes between CSA and non-CSA mothers utilizing both observational and self-report methods and to examine the unique impact of CSA on parenting attitudes. Abuse status was determined by scores on the Sexual Abuse subscale of the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ), with the CSA group comprised of mothers scoring in the moderate to severe range. Mothers self-reported parenting attitudes on the Parent-Parental Acceptance Rejection Questionnaire/Control (P-PARQ/Control) and the Adult Adolescent Parenting Inventory-2 (AAPI-2), while parental depression was assessed with the revised Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-2). Parenting behaviors were observed by coding the Parent-Child Interaction Assessment (PCIA). Hypotheses were not supported until child gender was considered as a third variable. Results of MANCOVA analyses indicated CSA mothers, but not comparison mothers, exhibited significantly poorer limit-setting skills (h² = .21) with male children compared to female children, but did not self-report these differences. Although not statistically significant, small but potentially meaningful effect sizes were found when the self-reports of CSA mothers were compared to their observed behaviors. Specifically, CSA mothers displayed increased levels of physical nurturance (h² = .11) and role reversal (h² = .08) with male children compared to female children, but again, did not self-report these differences. Finally, CSA mothers, but not comparison mothers tended to self-report greater beliefs in corporal punishment with male children compared to females (h² = .08). Secondary findings revealed parental depression was the only unique predictor of parental nurturance, attitude toward corporal punishment, and role reversal. Findings confirm the importance of third variables, including child gender and parental depression. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed, as well as limitations and future research directions.

The research investigated the impact of sexual harassment on withdrawal behaviors and attitudes toward harassment by examining the gender composition of the harassment dyad and the organizational status of the perpetrator in relation to the victim. Archival data from the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social Research at the University of Michigan was used to obtain surveys in which participants rated their attitudes and experiences related to sexual harassment. Only individuals who reported experiencing sexual harassment within the 24 months prior to data collection are included in the current research. A MANOVA was conducted to determine if withdrawal behaviors and attitudes of victims varied by the gender dyad and/or the organizational status of the perpetrator. Results indicated that individuals harassed by people with higher organizational status displayed more withdrawal behaviors in the form of decreased productivity and increased use of sick, annual, and unpaid leave. Individuals harassed by a member of the same gender also used more unpaid leave. Interestingly, individuals harassed by members of the opposite gender, tended to disagree more strongly with the attitude index measuring cautious awareness of sexual harassment.

Structural equation modeling was used to examine how childhood sexual abuse (and other associated variables, such as family functioning and experiencing multiple forms of abuse) relates to revictimization and psychological distress. Participants were women who participated in Project HOW: Health Outcomes of Women interviews, a longitudinal study that spanned six waves of interviews. Only women with a history of childhood sexual abuse were included in the present study (n=178). Experiencing nonsexual child maltreatment in addition to childhood sexual abuse appears directly related to adult sexual and physical revictimization and indirectly related to psychological distress. Childhood sexual abuse alone was not predictive of revictimization or psychological abuse. This suggests that other mediating factors may explain the relation between CSA and revictimization found in other research. Clinical implications based on the results of the present study emphasize the importance of identifying children who have experienced multiple forms of abuse as particularly at risk for future victimization. In addition, providing interventions with a focus on education and empowerment might decrease risk for future violence and subsequent emotional maladjustment. Potential future research could examine the treatment outcomes and efficacy of these interventions as well as identify those mediating factors that increase the risk for adult revictimization for those individuals who experience only childhood sexual abuse.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / The sexual abuse of learners by teachers (LSA) has been under recognised and understudied. This research set out to explore the intrapersonal, interpersonal and institutional dynamics and reactions related to LSA in Namibia. It was hypothesised that the survivor, her primary caretakers, the perpetrator and every educator involved, will have an influence on and/or be influenced by the occurrence of LSA. It was thought necessary to contextualise the phenomenon within the school setting, the policy environment and socio-economic background. I hoped that such a study would enhance understanding, and as such contribute to educational change. Research which aims to uncover personal meaning-making and hear the voice of participants already suggests that the qualitative paradigm would be suitable. "The advantages of qualitative portrayals of holistic settings and impacts is that greater attention can be given to nuance, setting, interdependencies, complexities, idiosyncrasies, and context" (Patton, 1990: 51). An exploratory case study was conducted in Namibia between September 2000 and October 2002. Thirteen participants from different socio-economic strata and subgroups participated. The data corpus also included eighteen policy documents of international or national reference, ten case-specific documents and five letters from archival files. To capture the tapestry of LSA accurately and holistically from the perspectives of every one of the role players, an in-depth analysis was necessary. The research uncovered that a school is by its interactive character and hierarchical constellation an ideal setting for LSA. It was found that educators, a survivor and his/her parents may, unwittingly and unwillingly, accommodate LSA: disempowered by the modus operandi of a perpetrator and blinded by the pastoral myth. Intrapersonal distress, fears and confusion led interpersonal and institutional (defensive) coping mechanisms. The coping mechanisms applied by one role player, rendered another ignorant, immobilised and/or disempowered - affirming the concepts of patterned relationships and circularity. Being allegedly homosexual child abuse, apparently perpetrated by a female, the case study was a "highly unusual manifestation" (Creswell, 1998: 119) of the phenomenon. This added value to the research. It was found that social conceptions ('females don't'), cultural practices (the othermother tradition) and added defences (abnormalisation), silence survivors, incapacitate protectors and perpetuate female perpetration. The research also challenges the research community to reinvestigate the proclaimed parameters of CSA. This research is first and foremost "forensically relevant research" (Myers, 1993: 573). It has shown how LSA happens, why role players accommodate LSA and through the research methodology established which investigative approaches might aid sustained disclosure and enhance truth-telling.

by Prof. Elizabeth Sparks / Higgins Hall 300

The purpose of this study was to examine the role childhood sexual abuse (CSA), social support and a person's worldview (i.e., optimistic or pessimistic attitudes) had on Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD).

No / There is apparent under-reporting of child sexual abuse in Britain¿s Asian communities and a varied capacity amongst professionals to respond with cultural competence. Professional approaches originate in cultural contexts, which are often different from those of most British Asians. If the proportion of children and non-abusing carers from Asian communities who access relevant services is to increase, professionals need to develop better understandings of cultural imperatives which determine behaviour in those communities. Consultations with Asian women in Bradford reinforce the view that culturally competent practice and respectful dialogue are essential to the protection of children. They also highlight a number of recurring themes. Members of Asian communities are aware of child sexual abuse, they recognize that the issue needs to be addressed by all communities and they report that many of those affected within their own communities have found it difficult to access relevant services. These consultations, like reports of similar work elsewhere, indicate that difficulties, which appear to arise from Asian women¿s fears about how agencies will respond, are frequently compounded by the impact of cultural imperatives arising from izzat (honour/respect), haya (modesty) and sharam (shame/embarrassment), which have a considerable influence on how many will behave.

This study investigated the relationships among the sex of respondents, the age of depicted perpetrators, the sex of depicted victims and perpetrators, and various respondent attributions toward hypothetical sexual abuse vignettes, in which a depicted 15-year old victim neither resisted nor encouraged a perpetrator's actions. The study also investigated the relationships of respondent sexual and gender-role attitudes and the aforementioned respondent attributions, Respondents (N = 262, 136 males and 126 females) were each presented with six (3 X 2) written vignettes in which the age of the perpetrator (15-, 25-, and 35-years old) and the sex of the perpetrator (male or female; only heterosexual interactions were used) were manipulated. Results suggested that there were significant respondent sex differences, with female respondents being more pro-victim and perceiving the depicted interactions as more abusive and more representative of child sexual abuse, Further, the age of the perpetrator was a significant factor for male respondent attributions, with more culpability and responsibility being attributed to older perpetrators. For male and female respondents, the age of the perpetrator was a significant factor in the ratings of abusiveness and the vignette's representativeness of , child sexual abuse, with the ratings of vignettes with older perpetrators being perceived as more abusive and more representative of child sexual abuse. The sex of the depicted perpetrator also was a significant factor for male respondent attributions, with more culpability and responsibility being attributed to depicted male perpetrators. For male and female respondents, the sex of the depicted perpetrator was a significant factor in the ratings of abusiveness and the vignette's representativeness of child sexual abuse, with the ratings of vignettes with male perpetrators being perceived as more abusive and more representative of child sexual abuse. Finally, gender-role attitudes and various sexual attitudes did not correlate consistently with respondent attributions of child sexual abuse in these scenarios. These findings emphasize the need to educate the general public about child sexual abuse and unwanted sexual contact involving individuals under the age of consent.

Text in Afrikaans / Summaries in English and Afrikaans / Die teoretiese basis van die verhandeling behels 'n uiteensetting van die Jungiaanse teorie en 'n bespreking van die seksuele molestering van seuns. Met die uiteensetting van die Jungiaanse teorie word die psigodinamiese aspekte van die psige verduidelik en grafiese voorstellings van die strukturele komponente daarvan word weergegee. Die ontwikkelingsfase van die seun word aangespreek, met klem op die rol van die gesin in sy ontwikkeling. In die beskrywing van die terapeutiese proses word spesifiek gefokus op die benutting van die reekstekeningmodel. Die fokuspunt van die beskrywing van seksuele molestering van seuns, behels die aanbieding van die korttermyngevolge binne 'n multimodale raamwerk. Die definiering en tipes seksuele molestering, asook die bekendmaking en faktore wat die trauma van seksuele molestering intensiveer, word verder aangespreek. Twee gevallestudies word as empiriese data aangebied. In elke gevallestudie word tekeninge deur middel van toto's bespreek nadat agtergrondinligting omtrent elke respondent aangebied / The theoretical basis of the thesis compromises an exposition of Jungian theory, and a discussion of the sexual abuse of boys. In the exposition of Jungian theory, the psychodynamics aspects of the psyche are elucidated and graphic illustrations of the structural components thereof are provided. The developmental phase of the boy is addressed, with emphasis on the role of the family in his development. In the discussion of the therapeutic process, specific focus is placed on the utilisation of the serial drawing model. The focal point of the description of sexual abuse of boys comprises the presentation of the short-term consequences within a multimodal framework. The definition and types of sexual abuse, as well as the making known thereof and the factors which intensify the trauma of sexual abuse, are also addressed. Two case studies are presented as empirical data. In each case study, drawings are discussed by means of photographs after the presentation of background information concerning each respondent. / Social Work