The Northern Highlands Terrane (NHT) in Scotland preserves a long record of metamorphism and convergent deformation related to several orogenic events that occurred from Neoproterozoic to Devonian time. Deconvolving the signatures of multiple tectonic events and determining the rates of metamorphism in settings like the NHT are important parts of better understanding the thermal and mechanical processes controlling convergent tectonics. I have used monazite-xenotime thermometry and geochronology, in conjunction with metamorphic petrology and additional accessory phase geochronology, to place constraints on the timing and rates of thermal metamorphism in a variety of structural settings throughout the NHT. Our data show that the ductile thrust nappes of northernmost Scotland preserve a record of Scandian (435-410 Ma) orogenesis. High grade metamorphism in the hinterland Naver nappe likely resulted from the widespread infiltration of granitic magmas at c. 425 Ma, which coincided with peak metamorphism. The timing of metamorphism in the hinterland Scandian thrust nappes is apparently younger than at least some deformation in the foreland Moine thrust zone, suggesting this orogenic wedge experienced large-scale out-of-sequence deformation and metamorphism. In contrast to the Scandian nappes, the Sgurr Beag nappe records primarily Precambrian metamorphism related to the Knoydartian orogeny (780-725 Ma). Additionally, monazite in the Sgurr Beag nappe preserves a record of widespread metasomatism and metamorphism at c. 600 Ma, possibly related to the break-up of Rodinia at that time. A potentially important heat source in orogenic systems, like those preserved in Scotland, is the thermal energy dissipated during deformation, otherwise known as shear heating. It is important to consider to how shear heating may contribute to metamorphism during orogenesis. This is challenging because there are few, if any, methods of relating observations from typical orogenic systems to magnitudes of shear heating. We have developed a model that is adaptable to a wide range of parameters that can be measured from naturally deformed rocks and places first-order constraints on magnitudes of shear heating. While our models suggest that shear heating is not particularly important in the NHT, in lower initial temperature mylonite zones shear heating could be more significant. / Doctor of Philosophy / The Northern Highlands Terrane (NHT) in Scotland preserves a long record of metamorphism and convergent deformation related to several orogenic events that occurred from Neoproterozoic to Devonian time. Understanding the record of each of these events and the rates at which metamorphic changes occurred is important for improving our understanding of the processes at work in continental collisions. The work presented in this thesis involves determining the temperatures recorded by metamorphic minerals and the ages of those minerals in order to reconstruct the temperature-time evolution of samples in a variety of positions within the NHT. Our data show that the collision and thermal metamorphism at 435-410 Ma is well preserved in northernmost Scotland. We argue that metamorphism in this area resulted from the widespread intrusion of hot magmas, which coincided in time with peak metamorphism. The timing of metamorphism in the core (hinterland) of this mountain belt is apparently younger than shallower deformation at the edges (foreland) of the mountain belt, suggesting active deformation and metamorphism retreated toward the hinterland during crustal shortening. In another part of the NHT, known as the Sgurr Beag nappe, a much older metamorphic event that occurred at 780-725 Ma is better preserved. In this area, the mineral monazite appears to record evidence of widespread fluid alteration at ~600 Ma, which has not previously been widely recognized in Scotland. A potentially important heat source in the Earth’s crust is shear heating associated with the thermal energy produced during deformation. It is important to consider what contribution shear heating may have made to the preserved metamorphic record in orogenic belts. This is challenging because there are few, if any, methods of relating observations from typical metamorphic rocks to estimated magnitudes of shear heating. We have developed a numerical model that is adaptable to a wide range of realistic natural scenarios and places first-order constraints on potential magnitudes of shear heating. While our models suggest that shear heating is not particularly important in the NHT, in some lower temperature fault zones shear heating could be more significant.

Les zones de cisaillement constituent des objets structuraux communs de la lithosphère. À grande échelle, elles sont le siège principal des déplacements entre plaques tectoniques, accommodant de grandes quantités de déformation. La compréhension de leur comportement mécanique dans le temps et l'espace est donc essentielle pour la connaissance générale de la dynamique de la lithosphère. La température joue un rôle majeur sur la loi de comportement rhéologique qui caractérise le domaine ductile (en profondeur), réduisant alors efficacement la résistance mécanique. Chaque roche possède en outre des propriétés mécaniques intrinsèques qui varient en fonction de sa composition minéralogique, de sa texture et de sa structure interne. Or, en l'absence de grandeurs directement mesurables en profondeur, la rhéologie de la lithosphère demeure sujette à diverses interprétations. Le comportement mécanique des zones de cisaillement est d'autant plus méconnu qu'elles sont le siège d'intenses changements de la nature des roches et de perturbations thermiques majeures. En particulier, l'énergie mécanique qui y est convertie en chaleur (shear heating) peut engendrer une étroite interrelation entre thermique et mécanique. Ce travail de thèse vise à contribuer à la connaissance générale de la rhéologie des zones de cisaillement lithosphérique. Une approche originale a été mise en place, se basant sur l'évolution thermique aux abords et au sein des zones de cisaillement. Sur la base de modèles numériques thermo-cinématiques 2-D et de développements analytiques, la variabilité de premier ordre de l'évolution et de la perturbation thermique est analysée et quantifiée au regard de l'influence des trois processus thermiques majeurs que sont la diffusion, l'advection et le shear heating. Les résultats sont confrontés aux signatures thermiques métamorphiques associées aux chevauchements intra-continentaux pour lesquels les influences des processus d'accrétion et d'érosion sont également examinées. Le cas du Main Central Thrust (Himalaya), associé à une inversion thermique métamorphique bien développée, est pris comme exemple de référence. Nos résultats quantitatifs mettent en avant le rôle crucial du shear heating, notamment de la variabilité de la résistance mécanique des zones de cisaillement. L'accent est mis sur l'importance des paramètres de fluage des roches. L'étude de zones de cisaillement centimétriques développées au sein de la granodiorite du Zillertal (fenêtre des Tauern, Alpes) à la faveur de faibles variations de la composition minéralogique révèle l'extrême sensibilité de la rhéologie des roches ignées représentatives de la croûte continentale. Les conséquences de cette variabilité intense à petite échelle sont finalement discutées au regard des rhéologies classiquement considérées dans les modèles qui s'intéressent aux processus qui régissent la dynamique de la lithosphère. / Shear zones are common structural features in the lithosphere and occur at various scales (from microscopic to lithospheric). At the lithospheric scale, they concentrate most of the relative movements between tectonic plates, and therefore, accommodate a high amount of strain. Consequently, the understanding of both their spatial and temporal mechanical behaviour is crucial for the general knowledge of the lithosphe dynamics. Rheology of rocks, which define their mechanical behaviour, is controlled by physical laws that predict how they deform under some stresses. Temperature plays a major role in the creep-dislocation behaviour, which characterizes the ductile domain (in depth), decreasing efficiently the rock strength. Furthermore, each rock has intrinsic mechanical properties, which depend on its mineralogical composition, texture and internal structures. However, due to the lack of data directly measurable deeper than a few kilometres, the lithosphere rheology, and in particular the continental lithosphere remains subject to drastically different interpretations. The mechanical behaviour of major shear zones is not fully understood, as they are the location of intense changes of both the rock internal nature and major thermal perturbations. Especially, the mechanical energy, converted into heat (shear heating) causes a close interaction between thermal ad mechanical evolutions. This thesis aims to better understand the rheological state of lithospheric scale shear zones. For this purpose, we used an original approach, based on the temperature field evolution around and within such shear zones. From 2D numerical thermo-kinematic models and analytical developments, the first order variability of thermal evolution and perturbation is anal- ysed and quantified with respect to the impact of three major thermal processes, defined as diffusion, advection and shear heating. Results are compared to metamorphic thermal signatures associated to intra-continental thrust zones for which the influence of both accretion and erosion was also investigated. The case of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the Himalayas, whose the inverse metamorphic thermal zonation has been extensively studied, was chosen as the main natural analogue. Our quantitative results highlight the crucial role of shear heating, and more particularly of mechanical strength variability within shear zones. We thus emphasise on the importance of rock creep parameters. The study of centimetre-scale shear zones, which developed within the granodiorite of the Zillertal nappe (Tauern window, Tyrol, Alps) thanks to little local variations of the mineralogical composition, reveals the extreme sensitivity of igneous rocks rheology, representative of the continental crust. The consequences of such an intense variability, revealed at small scale are finally discussed with regard to rheologies usually considered in models that focus on processes controlling lithosphere dynamics.

The initiation of subduction requires the formation of lithospheric plates which mostly deform at their edges. Shear heating is a possible candidate for producing such localized deformation. In this thesis we employ a 2D model of the mantle with a visco-elasto-plastic rheology and enabled shear heating. We are able to create a shear heating instability both in a constant strain rate and a constant stress boundary condition setup. For the rst case, localized deformation in our specic setup is found for strain rates of 10-15 1/s and mantle temperatures of 1300°C. For constant stress boundaries, the conditions for a setup to localize are more restrictive. Mantle motion is induced by large cold and hot temperature perturbations. Lithospheric stresses scale with the size of these perturbations; maximum stresses are on the order of the yield stress (1 GPa). Adding topography or large inhomogeneities does not result in lithospheric-scale fracture in our model. However, localized deformation does occur for a restricted parameter choice presented in this thesis. The perturbation size has little effect on the occurrence of localization, but large perturbations shorten its onset time.

No / The development and validation of a sensor for extrusion melt temperature field measurement is described. A grid of opposing thermocouple wires was constructed and held in position by a supporting frame. Wires were joined together at crossing points to form thermocouple junctions, which were computer monitored. The mesh was used to monitor melt temperature fields during single screw extrusion at the die entrance. Design and construction of the mesh is described in addition to experimental optimization of wire diameter and junction forming. Calibration of the sensor and potential measurement errors including shear heating effects are discussed. Initial results from single screw extrusion are presented for a commercial grade of low density polyethylene using five- and seven-junction thermocouple meshes. The dependence of melt temperature profile on screw speed is illustrated. At low screw speeds melt temperature profiles were flat in shape and higher than set wall temperatures. At higher screw speeds the profiles became more pointed in shape. Use of higher resolution sensors exposed more complex temperature profiles with shoulder regions.

Les ressources géothermales de haute température se localisent principalement le long des zones de subduction. Considérée comme amagmatique, la Province géothermale du Menderes (Turquie) offre l’opportunité d’étudier des systèmes géothermaux sans nécessairement invoquer une source de chaleur magmatique dans les premiers kilomètres de la croûte. Cette étude montre que les températures anormalement élevées dans la zone d’arrière-arcs sont principalement liées à la dynamique particulière de la subduction est-méditerranéenne (i.e. retrait et déchirure). Les résultats de modèles numériques suggèrent que le shear heating et les flux mantelliques modifient temporairement la quantité du flux de chaleur à la base de croûte. Par ailleurs, des études de terrain sur l’ensemble de la région (Cyclades, Dodécanèse et Anatolie occidentale) montrent une évolution tectonique et thermique similaire depuis le Crétacé, marquée minéralogiquement par une succession d’épisodes de HP-BT puis de HT-BP. Toutefois, l’apport des données TRSCM et radiochronométriques (⁴⁰Ar-³⁹Ar, U-Pb) souligne un évènement thermique majeur contemporain à la mise en place du dôme métamorphique du Menderes. Cet événement que l’on explique par un changement drastique de la dynamique de subduction (i.e. déchirure du panneau plongeant sous le Massif du Menderes), se développe au Miocène. Des structures d’échelle crustale (i.e. détachements)accommodent la mise en place du Massif du Menderes et contrôlent la circulation des fluides dans la croûte, depuis la zone de transition fragile-ductile jusqu’à la surface, sans nécessairement impliquer la contribution de systèmes magmatiques dans la croûte supérieure. La Province géothermale du Menderes est considérée comme une province de haute température de taille mondiale car elle résulte de la dynamique de subduction qui contrôle spatialement et temporellement l’intensité de l’anomalie thermique mais également la mise en place de structures perméables(détachements) d’échelle crustale favorisant la circulation des fluides. / High temperature geothermal resources are mainly located along subduction zones. The Menderes geothermal Province (Turkey) offers the opportunity to study amagmatic geothermal systems, without necessarily invoking a magmatic heat source in the upper crust. This study shows that high temperatures in the back-arc domain are primarily related to subduction dynamics (i.e. rollback and tearing). Numerical models suggest that shear heating and mantle flows increase temporarily the amount of heat flow at the base of the crust. Furthermore, field studies on the entire Aegean region (Cyclades, Dodecanese and Western Anatolia) show a similar tectonic and thermal evolution since the Cretaceous, characterized by a succession of episodes of HP-LT and HT-LP metamorphism. Moreover, the contribution of TRSCM and radiochronometric data (⁴⁰Ar-³⁹Ar, U-Pb) reveals the formation of a largethermal pulse contemporaneous with the exhumation of the Menderes MCC. This event occurs in the Miocene and may be explained by a drastic change in subduction dynamics (i.e. slab tearing under the Menderes Massif).Crustal-scale structures (i.e. detachments) induce the emplacement of the Menderes MCC, and also control deep fluids circulation in the crust from brittle-ductile transition zone to the surface without magmatic contribution inthe upper crust. As a consequence, the Menderes geothermal Province is recognized as a most important active geothermal province in the world because it results from subduction dynamics. This dynamics thus controls thespatial and temporal distribution of thermal anomaly and extension, inducing crustal-scale permeable structures(detachments) that enhance fluids circulation.