The effects of gypsy moth infestation on the Shenandoah National Park (SNP) black bear population and habitat were studied during 1985 - 1991 by comparing radio telemetry, population, and behavioral data from preinfestation years (1982 - 1986) and years with extensive defoliation (1987 - 1991). Gypsy moth defoliation (> 60% canopy loss) increased from 546 ha in 1986 (1 % of the study area), to 2,304 ha in 1987 (4%), 6,227 ha in 1988 (12%), and 17,736 ha in 1989 (34%). Chestnut oak and red oak habitat types received the greatest defoliation; 60% and 45% of these habitat types suffered greater than 60 % canopy loss in the North and Central Districts, respectively. Infestation resulted in a 99% reduction in acorn production in defoliated stands. Maximum daily temperatures 0.5 m above the ground in defoliated stands averaged 4.7 ± 0.3 C, 4.3 ± 0.4 C, and 2.5 ± 0.3 C warmer (P < 0.01) than in nondefoliated stands during peak defoliation, refoliation, and post-refoliation periods, respectively. Bear / Ph. D.

The seasonal movements, food habits, and habitat selection of black bears (<i>Ursus americanus</i>) in Shenandoah National Park, Virginia were studied from May 1982 to April 1985. A total of 47 collared bears, including 25 adult females, 17 adult males, and 5 subadult males < 3.5 years old, was located 3973 times during the study. Adult males had larger (<i>P</i><0.001) home ranges (100% X=195 km², 95% X=116 km²) than adult females (100% X=38 km², 95% X=22 km²). Subadult males had larger (<i>P</i><0.10) home ranges (100% X=542 km², 95% X=289 km²) than adult males and females. Extensive home range overlap occurred among each sex and age group. At least three subadult males dispersed from the Park during the study. Female bears with cubs were less mobile than solitary females during the spring. Fall cubs were large and did not restrict females' movements. Large fall home ranges for females were related to the scattered supply of acorns relative to the concentrated sources of soft mast used in the summer. Two females with cubs and 2 subadult males remained active during the winter months. Adult and subadult males generally had less stable home ranges than adult females. Female bears displayed infidelity to given areas during the fall from year-to-year due to variation in the distribution of hard mast (acorns). Male bears made long excursions onto the Piedmont Plateau east of the Park mainly during the spring and early fall. Females were not exposed to as much human induced mortality as males because they were located within the Park 17% more frequently than males. Males avoided fire roads (<i>P</i><0.001), light duty roads (<i>P</i><0.001), and primary roads (<i>P</i><0.01) year around. Female bears preferred fire roads during summer (<i>P</i>< 0.001) and early fall (<i>P</i><0.01) and avoided heavier traveled roads such as light duty roads (<i>P</i><0.001) and primary roads (<i>P</i><0.001) year around. Both male and female bears preferred foot trails for travel (<i>P</i><0.05). Bears rarely came within 100 meters of campgrounds, picnic areas, and other human disturbance areas within the Park. Both sexes used low (<i>P</i><0.10) elevations during the summer and high (<i>P</i><0.10) elevations during early and late fall. Bears showed the greatest use of small rivers and streams during the driest months of summer. Geographic land forms of specific aspects, contours, and varying steepness were used differently by male and female bears. Twelve stomachs and 854 scats were analyzed for food content. Forbs, graminoids, squawroot (<i>Conopholis americana</i>), corn, and the fruits of trees, shrubs, and vines composed 90 percent volume of the annual diet. Eight percent of the food consumed was animal matter from mammals, birds, and invertebrates. During all seasons, females used yellow poplar (<i>Liriodendron tulipifera</i>) forests more (<i>P</i><0.05) than males while males used yellow poplar forests less (<i>P</i><0.05) than expected; males used black locust (<i>Robinia pseudoacacia</i>) \ black cherry (<i>Prunus serotina</i>) forests more (<i>P</i><0.05) than females and more (<i>P</i><0.05) than expected. Shifts in use of chestnut oak (<i>Quercus prinus</i>) \ northern red oak (<i>Q. rubra</i>) forests and northern red oak \ white oak (<i>Q. alba</i>) forests by both males and females in early and late fall was attributed to annual variation in oak mast production, preference for white oak acorns, foraging strategy, and the importance of mountain laurel (<i>Kalmia latifolia</i>) shrub cover in late fall. Seasonal use of domestic fruits at 330 abandoned homesites was determined. Distance-to-nearest-homesite measurements indicated that males were never closer (<i>P</i>>0.10) to homesites than females or random points during any season while females were closer (<i>P</i><0.001) to homesites than males and random points during summer. Only females were located at homesites (≤ 100m) more (<i>P</i><0.001) than expected during summer and early fall. Bears consumed apples (<i>Malus</i> spp.) and sweet cherries (<i>Prunus avium</i>) at abandoned homesites mainly in summer, early fall, and late fall. Bears used homesites in late fall more than distance measures indicated. Domestic fruits were an important nutritional food for black bears in relation to total soft fruits eaten. / Master of Science / incomplete_metadata

Research was conducted in three areas of water quality assessment. Long term ecological monitoring data from Shenandoah National Park (SNP) were analyzed and a protocol for data analysis was presented. Streams in SNP were found to be comparable to the best that can be found in the Blue Ridge ecoregion. Land use in SNP (mostly for recreational purposes) does not appear to be causing impairment to the macroinvertebrate assemblages. Streams in the SNP were found to recover quickly from disturbance. The Macroinvertebrate Aggregated Index for Streams (MAIS) was found to have an overall classification efficiency (CE) of 86% in the Ridge and Valley ecoregion, and an overall CE of 91% in the Central Appalachians ecoregion. Refinement of the MAIS for use in the Blue Ridge ecoregion resulted in an increase of the overall CE to 78%. The CE for reference sites in the Blue Ridge was 75%, and the CE for degraded sites was 87%. An intensive study of a stream (Peak Creek) with suspected heavy metal impairment showed that capping of an industrial waste site has resulted in improvements to the macroinvertebrate assemblages. The source of the impairment was not linked solely to heavy metals, but was found to be a mixture of pollution sources and environmental stress. / Ph. D.

The relation between prey density and brook trout Salvelinus fontinalis food consumption has not been quantified in natural streams. This relation may be most critical in the summer when southern Appalachian trout have demonstrated poor growth. It is not Known whether the poor growth is due to the low food densities or to excess temperatures and increased metabolic costs. Purposes of this study were to quantify the relation between prey density and food consumption in brook trout, identify how diel feeding and prey size selectivity by brook trout affect the relation, and to determine if slow growth in the summer was caused by low daily rations or other factors. Daily consumption was estimated in May, July and September of 1989, for four streams in Shenandoah National Park. Sampling was performed at 6-hour intervals over 24 hours. Adult and yearling trout did not consume more food at one specific time throughout the summer, but juvenile trout (< 100 mm) fed significantly less at night in both July and September. All sizes of fish selected for prey longer than 4mm. The best predictor of daily ration (corrected for temperature) over the summer was the number of prey longer than 4mm/m³. Models parameterized to quantify the relation between prey density and food consumption showed that adult trout were significantly more likely to have a higher daily ration per gram body weight (temperature and size corrected) than yearling trout at low ( < 1.0 prey longer than 4mm/m³) prey densities. Daily ration of juvenile trout was independent of prey abundance. The prey density-consumption relation was more consistent within streams than among streams, which suggests that habitat or population characteristics may influence the prey density-consumption relation. Trout had the most energy available for growth in July followed by May and then September. Daily ration was most dependent on temperature in May and on prey density in July and September. Juvenile trout did not decrease daily ration as much from July to September as did yearling and adult trout. All sizes of trout met maintenance costs in both early and late summer, yet yearling and adult trout did not grow in late summer although stream temperature was optimum for growth. Growth was negatively correlated with daily ration in the late summer, suggesting that activity costs may be more important in determining growth in late summer than prey densities. Activity costs varied substantially among streams. The effect of food consumption and habitat on activity costs needs to be defined to improve understanding of the determinants of growth in stream environments. / Master of Science

The rock outcrops and cliffs of Shenandoah National Park provide habitat for several rare and endangered plant and animal species. The location of the world-famous ridgeline parkway, Skyline Drive, makes many outcrops and cliffs within the park readily accessible to the park's 1.2 million annual visitors. Consequently, visitor use of cliff areas has led to natural resource impacts, including marked decreases in size and vigor of known rare plant populations. Despite the clear ecological value and potential threats to the natural resources at cliff areas in the park, managers possess little information on visitor use of cliff sites and presently have no formal planning document to guide management. Thus, a park wide study of cliff sites was initiated during the 2005 visitor use season. As part of this research effort, the study presented in this thesis integrated data from resource impact measurements and visitor use observation to help assess the effects of recreational use on the natural resources of one heavily used cliff site in the park, Little Stony Man Cliffs. Results of resource impact measurements indicate that several nodal areas of high disturbance (bare soil) are present on the cliff-top and cliff-bottom. Additionally, visitor observation data point to several possible visitor use factors that may contribute to cliff-top impacts, including concentrated levels of use during certain times of day and days of the week, and frequent trampling of soil and vegetation by visitors. The information from the study presented in this thesis will help assist Shenandoah National Park staff in developing a cliff resource management plan that will protect park resources while providing opportunities for visitor enjoyment. / Master of Science

A wildfire of variable intensity occurred in mid-July of 1988 in the Shenandoah National Park and adjacent private lands. This study was established to measure post-fire forest soil and vegetation characteristics in both the mixed pine and mixed oak forest types occurring on Dovel Mountain in the Shenandoah National Park, Virginia. Vegetation and soil results represent one (1989) and two (1990) growing seasons following fire occurrence in the mixed pine forest type, whereas only second year results are reported for the mixed oak forest type. Forest floor and mineral soil parameters differed among burn levels and followed similar trends for both forest types. Forest floor depth and weight were significantly less on low and high burn areas as compared to unburned areas. Low intensity fires removed the Oi-Oe layer while leaving the Oa layer relatively intact. Conversely, high intensity fifes resulted in the consumption of the entire forest floor. Total carbon, nitrogen, and nutrient differences between low and unburned areas for the entire forest floor (Oi-Oe + Oa) were negligible. However, loss of these constituents were much greater following high intensity fifes. Differences in the surface 10 cm of mineral soil were also detected following following high intensity fifes. Differences in the sulface 10 cm of mineral soil were also detected following low and high intensity fires. Mineral soil acidity was lower while exchangeable cation concentrations were higher in burned areas compared to unburned areas. Total carbon and nitrogen levels were higher in low burn areas, whereas total carbon and nitrogen levels were lower on high bum areas. Inorganic nitrogen levels were higher in both low and high burn areas compared to unburned areas. / Master of Science

This study examines multiple destination recreation trips and the economic valuation of recreation sites using the travel cost method. One common assumption of the travel cost method is that all travel costs incurred by a visitor are exclusively for a trip to a single site. However, this assumption is often invalid, particularly in the eastern United States where there are numerous recreation areas close to large urban populations. Few researchers have attempted to overcome the difficulty of incorporating multiple destination trips into the travel cost method. Those researchers that have proposed methods have not provided a definitive guideline for how to account for multiple destination trips in the travel cost method, and have not compared their methods. This study proposes a simple model to assist in understanding the varying suggestions by researchers who have attempted to incorporate multiple destination trips into travel cost analyses. The difficulty of defining a recreation good or service, the identification of recreation substitutes, and possible decision processes used by individuals to identify recreation trip destinations are also discussed. Data collected at Shenandoah National Park, Virginia, are used in a zonal travel cost model to estimate the consumers' surplus associated with on-site recreation use at the Park, and to compare proposed methods for handling multiple destination trips. The results of this study show that the travel cost method is sensitive to assumptions about multiple destination visitors, as well as which visitors are included in travel cost analyses. Consumers' surplus estimates ranged from $38 to $8249 per visitor, depending on the assumptions about multiple destination trips, and which visitors were included in the analyses. The results of this study suggest that the travel cost method can be used as an information system, rather than as a method to determine a single estimate of recreation value in monetary terms. The travel cost method is capable of providing a manager with information about relative magnitudes of willingness to pay for a resource by a variety of visitor groups. By varying the assumptions about visitors to the site, a manager can determine a range of consumers' surplus estimates, which may be more useful than a single estimate, to better assist in management decisions regarding the mixture of resources desired by individuals. / Ph. D.

A graphical system was developed to represent airborne air quality monitoring data. The representations developed included three—dimensional spatial mapping, percentage and frequency distributions, and altitude—based scatter diagrams. Elementary statistical analyses and correlations of the measured parameters were also performed. Data gathered in eight flights to the Shenandoah National Park during the summer months of 1981 were analyzed. Sulfur dioxide levels were found to be in the 5 - 15 ppb range, nitrogen oxides were in the 4 — 10 ppb range, nitrous oxide was in the 2 - 5 ppb range, nitrogen dioxide was in the 2 - 5 ppb range, ozone was in the 35 - 70 ppb range and visual range was in the 5 — 90 mile range. The data representation system proved to be an easier and more useful method of displaying the data than the previously existing system. / Master of Science

Attitude surveys can serve as a basis of public interest and opinion inputs to National Park Service planning and management decision making. The initial objective of this study was to develop a method for scaling attitudes which alleviated problems of interpreting effects of two related components of attitude--beliefs and corresponding evaluations of those beliefs. In conjunction with this objective, visitor knowledge about and attitudes toward resource use and management in Shenandoah National Park were assessed. Finally, guidelines were formulated suggesting how to design an effective interpretive message taking into account relevant user characteristics, level of knowledge, and attitudes toward resource use and management in the national park. Considering summer months and weekend/weekday visitation patterns, a stratified random sample of days was selected to contact park visitors. On designated sampling days visitors were contacted at lodges, backcountry stations or campgrounds. Names and addresses were secured via an information release form. In September, 1978, individuals were mailed an attitude survey. A follow-up post card and two selective follow-up questionnaire mailings ensued. Overall response rate was 81 percent. The survey instrument obtained contributions of belief and affective components of attitude. In order to measure these components in a manner reflecting resource management objectives and allowing easy interpretation of attitude scores, a new modified matrix scaling technique was developed. A matrix of attitude scores was computed using an unipolar belief scale and bipolar affect scale. The computed using an unipolar belief scale and bipolar affect scale. The belief scale was also employed to determine visitor level of knowledge concerning resource use and management in Shenandoah National Park. The over-all matrix system was developed within the framework of Fishbein's (1963) expectancy value attitude theory. The scaling method lessened some of the problems created by using standard bipolar st.nnmative scaling. In addition, final scores derived from this matrix procedure were logically consistent, theoretically appropriate, and may be managerially relevant. Results of analyses of variance in overall belief and attitude scores suggested the utility of developing different interpretive messages about resource use and management for the three camping styleslodge, campground, and backcountry users. Attitude changes predicted via the expectancy value formulation indicated the importance of considering the distribution of visitor attitude scores before attempting development of an interpretive message designed to influence attitudes. / Ph. D.

Practicing science in a policy context demands careful attention. This research presents backcountry campsite conditions found in Shenandoah National Park during 1992. It fuels a policy process grounded in Limits-of-Acceptable-Change (LAC). This context provides an opportunity to critique natural resource science within an LAC process and to illustrate the applicability of techniques from disciplines as diverse as educational testing and policy sciences. The condition, location, and legality of 743 backcountry campsites are reported, as revealed during a census completed using methods from recreation ecology. To assess the consistency and precision of campsite surveyors, techniques from educational measurement are adopted, including generalizability theory and decision studies. For each indicator, these techniques reveal the consistency of raters, their ability to distinguish between unique campsites, and whether raters are systematic. These three components were found to vary considerably for different indicators, reflecting the appropriateness of each indicator for justifying management decisions. In addition to traditional description of survey results, campsite condition indicators of 220 campsites with bare soil are reintegrated using cluster analysis. Seven distinct types of campsites with bare soil exist in the park. This approach should facilitate policy makers’ understanding of findings, and improve investigators’ comprehension of survey data. Recommendations include adopting a multiple strategy policy for managing backcountry campsites in Shenandoah National Park, continuing efforts to adapt generalizability theory to natural resource monitoring, and applying two phase research designs that combine the strengths of both census and survey in an efficient manner guided by generalizability theory. / Master of Science