Species composition, temperature, soil nutrients, and leaf area index (LAI) were recorded across three encroaching Morella cerifera thicket edges and three free- standing shrubs on Hog Island, Virginia to characterize the effect of shrub thickets on the plant community and microclimate. Electron transport rate (ETR) was taken on shrub leaves to determine if microclimate benefits M. cerifera physiology. Species richness was lowest inside shrub thickets. Soil water content and LAI were higher in shrub thickets compared to grassland. Soil organic matter, N, and C were higher inside shrub thickets. Summer and fall maximum temperatures were more moderate in shrub thickets and at free-standing shrubs. Fall and winter minimum temperatures were higher inside shrub thickets. ETR was higher at the free-standing shrubs compared to the thicket edge. Morella cerifera impacts microclimate characteristics and species composition immediately upon encroachment. Improved shrub physiology was neither supported nor rejected by the research presented here.

Die Vegetationskomposition und –struktur, beispielsweise die unterschiedliche Architektur von Bäumen, Sträuchern, Gräsern und Kräutern, bietet ein großes Spektrum an Habitaten und Nischen, die wiederum eine hohe Tierdiversität in den Savannensystemen des südlichen Afrikas ermöglichen. Dieses Ökosystem wurde jedoch über Jahrzehnte weltweit durch intensive anthropogene Landnutzung (z.B. Viehwirtschaft) nachhaltig verändert. Dabei wurden die Zusammensetzung, Diversität und Struktur der Vegetation stark verändert. Überweidung in Savannensystemen führt zu einer Degradation des Habitates einhergehend mit dem Verlust von perennierenden Gräsern und krautiger Vegetation. Dies führt zu einem Anstieg an vegetationsfreien Bodenflächen. Beides, sowohl der Verlust an perennierenden Gräsern und krautiger Vegetation sowie der Anstieg an vegetationsfreien Flächen führt zu verbesserten Etablierungsbedingungen für Sträucher (z.B. Rhigozum trichotomum, Acacia mellifera) und auf lange Sicht zu stark verbuschten Flächen. Die Tierdiversität in Savannen ist hiervon entscheidend beeinflusst. Mit sinkender struktureller Diversität verringert sich auch die Tierdiversität. Während der Einfluss von Überweidung auf die Vegetation relativ gut untersucht ist sind Informationen über den Einfluss von Überweidung auf die Tierdiversität, speziell für Reptilien, eher spärlich vorhanden. Zusätzlich ist sehr wenig bekannt zum Einfluss auf die Populationsdynamik (z.B. Verhaltensanpassungen, Raumnutzung, Überlebensrate, Sterberate) einzelner Reptilienarten. Ziel meiner Doktorarbeit ist es den Einfluss von Überweidung durch kommerzielle Farmnutzung auf die Reptiliengemeinschaft und auf verschiedene Aspekte der Populationsdynamik der Echse Pedioplanis lineoocellata lineoocellata zu untersuchen. Hinsichtlich bestimmter Naturschutzmaßnahmen ist es einerseits wichtig zu verstehen welchen Auswirkungen Überweidung auf die gesamte Reptiliengemeinschaft hat. Und zum anderen wie entscheidende Faktoren der Populationsdynamik beeinflusst werden. Beides führt zu einem besseren Verständnis der Reaktion von Reptilien auf Habitatdegradation zu erlangen. Die Ergebnisse meiner Doktorarbeit zeigen eindeutig einen negativen Einfluss der Überweidung und der daraus resultierende Habitatdegradation auf (1) die gesamte Reptiliengemeinschaft und (2) auf einzelne Aspekte der Populationsdynamik von P. lineoocellata. Im Teil 1 wird die signifikante Reduzierung der Reptiliendiversität und Abundanz in degradierten Habitaten beschrieben. Im zweiten Teil wird gezeigt, dass P. lineoocellata das Verhalten an die verschlechterten Lebensbedingungen anpassen kann. Die Art bewegt sich sowohl häufiger als auch über einen längeren Zeitraum und legt dabei größere Distanzen zurück. Zusätzlich vergrößerte die Art ihr Revier (home range) (Teil 3). Im abschließenden Teil wird der negative Einfluss von Überweidung auf die Populationsdynamik von P. lineoocellata beschrieben: In degradierten Habitaten nimmt die Populationsgröße von adulten und juvenilen Echsen ab, die Überlebens- und Geburtenrate sinken, währen zusätzlich das Prädationsrisiko ansteigt. Verantwortlich hierfür ist zum einen die ebenfalls reduzierte Nahrungsverfügbarkeit (Arthropoden) auf degradierten Flächen. Dies hat zur Folge, dass die Populationsgröße abnimmt und die Fitness der Individuen verringert wird, welches sich durch eine Reduzierung der Überlebens- und Geburtenrate bemerkbar macht. Und zum anderen ist es die Reduzierung der Vegetationsbedeckung und der Rückgang an perennierenden Gräsern welche sich negativ auswirken. Als Konsequenz hiervon gehen Nischen und Mikrohabitate verloren und die Möglichkeiten der Reptilien zur Thermoregulation sind verringert. Des Weiteren hat dieser Verlust an perennierender Grasbedeckung auch ein erhöhtes Prädationsrisikos zur Folge. Zusammenfassend lässt sich sagen, dass nicht nur Bäume und Sträucher, wie in anderen Studien gezeigt, eine bedeutende Rolle für die Diversität spielen, sondern auch das perennierende Gras eine wichtige Rolle für die Faunendiversität spielt. Weiterhin zeigte sich, dass Habitatdegradation nicht nur die Population als gesamtes beeinflusst, sondern auch das Verhalten und Populationsparameter einzelner Arten. Des Weiteren ist es Reptilien möglich durch Verhaltensflexibilität auf verschlechterte Umweltbedingen zu reagieren. / In semi-arid savannah ecosystems, the vegetation structure and composition, i.e. the architecture of trees, shrubs, grass tussocks and herbaceous plants, offer a great variety of habitats and niches to sustain animal diversity. In the last decades intensive human land use practises like livestock farming have altered the vegetation in savannah ecosystems worldwide. Extensive grazing leads to a reduction of the perennial and herbaceous vegetation cover, which results in an increased availability of bare soil. Both, the missing competition with perennial grasses and the increase of bare soils favour shrub on open ground and lead to area-wide shrub encroachment. As a consequence of the altered vegetation structure and composition, the structural diversity declines. It has been shown that with decreasing structural diversity animal diversity decline across a variety of taxa. Knowledge on the effects of overgrazing on reptiles, which are an important part of the ecosystem, are missing. Furthermore, the impact of habitat degradation on factors of a species population dynamic and life history, e.g., birth rate, survival rate, predation risk, space requirements or behavioural adaptations are poorly known. Therefore, I investigated the impact of overgrazing on the reptile community in the southern Kalahari. Secondly I analysed population dynamics and the behaviour of the Spotted Sand Lizard, Pedioplanis l. lineoocellata. All four chapters clearly demonstrate that habitat degradation caused by overgrazing had a severe negative impact upon (i) the reptile community as a whole and (ii) on population parameters of Pedioplanis l. lineoocellata. Chapter one showed a significant decline of regional reptile diversity and abundance in degraded habitats. In chapter two I demonstrated that P. lineoocellata moves more frequently, spends more time moving and covers larger distances in degraded than in non-degraded habitats. In addition, home range size of the lizard species increases in degraded habitats as shown by chapter three. Finally, chapter four showed the negative impacts of overgrazing on several population parameters of P. lineoocellata. Absolute population size of adult and juvenile lizards, survival rate and birth rate are significantly lower in degraded habitats. Furthermore, the predation risk was greatly increased in degraded habitats. A combination of a variety of aspects can explain the negative impact of habitat degradation on reptiles. First, reduced prey availability negatively affects survival rate, the birth rate and overall abundance. Second, the loss of perennial plant cover leads to a loss of niches and to a reduction of opportunities to thermoregulate. Furthermore, a loss of cover and is associated with increased predation risk. A major finding of my thesis is that the lizard P. lineoocellata can alter its foraging strategy. Species that are able to adapt and change behaviour, such as P. lineoocellata can effectively buffer against changes in their environment. Furthermore, perennial grass cover can be seen as a crucial ecological component of the vegetation in the semi-arid savannah system of the southern Kalahari. If perennial grass cover is reduced to a certain degree reptile diversity will decline and most other aspects of reptile life history will be negatively influenced. Savannah systems are characterised by a mixture of trees, shrubs and perennial grasses. These three vegetation components determine the composition and structure of the vegetation and accordingly influence the faunal diversity. Trees are viewed as keystone structures and focal points of animal activity for a variety of species. Trees supply animals with shelter, shade and food and act as safe sites, nesting sites, observation posts and foraging sites. Recent research demonstrates a positive influence of shrub patches on animal diversity. Moreover, it would seem that intermediate shrub cover can also sustain viable populations in savannah landscapes as has been demonstrated for small carnivores and rodent species. The influence of perennial grasses on faunal diversity did not receive the same attention as the influence of trees and shrubs. In my thesis I didn’t explicitly measure the direct effects of perennial grasses but my results strongly imply that it has an important role. If the perennial grass cover is significantly depleted my results suggest it will negatively influence reptile diversity and abundance and on several populations parameters of P. lineoocellata. Perennial grass cover is associated with the highest prey abundance, reptile diversity and reptile abundance. It provides reptiles both a refuge from predators and opportunities to optimise thermoregulation. The relevance of each of the three vegetation structural elements is different for each taxa and species. In conclusion, I can all three major vegetation structures in the savannah system are important for faunal diversity.

No description available.

Watersheds in the Southwest, particularly the San Simon Watershed in Arizona, have been experiencing degradation since the turn of the century through processes of erosion and vegetation change. Mitigation and management actions rely on long-term assessment of landcover change; however, traditional methods of ground assessment are time-consuming and specific to particular sites. Remote sensing techniques can be an alternative method to assess landcover change over extensive areas. Forage inventory surveys and historical monitoring data were assessed for utility in landcover change detection. The contemporary remotely-sensed classifications included 2001 SwReGAP data and a CART classification of 2010 Landsat TM data. The CART classification was aided by shrub cover analysis of NAIP aerial photography. It was found that 1930s Grazing inventories were compatible with contemporary satellite image classifications for large-scale landcover change detection.

Patterns of the expansion of woody cover into grasslands on barrier islands of the Virginia coast were investigated. Seed dispersal of the dominant shrub Morella spp., was sampled deploying seed traps (n = 82) throughout a landscape under shrub encroachment pressure on Hog Island, VA. Traps were placed underneath: fruiting Morella, non-fruiting Morella, co-occurring species (Iva frutescens and Baccharis halimifolia) and in grass land, (no shrub cover). Environmental filters that act upon dispersed seeds and subsequently determine establishment patterns were also investigated. Dispersal distribution throughout the encroachment zone was leptokurtic and dispersal among cover types suggest co-occurring shrub species facilitate dispersal by functioning as bird perches. Interaction of biotic and abiotic factors mediate a complex process of establishment by influencing dispersal, germination and seedling survival to ultimately determine distribution patterns of woody plants in coastal environments.

The projected increase of shrubs across the Arctic is expected to alter patterns of snow cover, which may affect the phenology and survival of arthropods such as spiders. In this study, we simulated shrub encroachment on a series of tundra plots and examined the effects on the spider assemblages during the following growing season. Our simulated shrub treatment did not affect the abundance or composition of spider communities over the season; however, adults from the dominant genus Pardosa (Lycosidae) had significantly higher body mass on treatment plots. This difference in mass was observed following snow melt and persisted until halfway through the growing season. Given the importance of spiders as arthropod predators and as food sources for breeding birds, such a change in summer body mass could represent a shift in spiders’ functional contributions to Arctic ecosystems.

The projected increase of shrubs across the Arctic is expected to alter patterns of snow cover, which may affect the phenology and survival of arthropods such as spiders. In this study, we simulated shrub encroachment on a series of tundra plots and examined the effects on the spider assemblages during the following growing season. Our simulated shrub treatment did not affect the abundance or composition of spider communities over the season; however, adults from the dominant genus Pardosa (Lycosidae) had significantly higher body mass on treatment plots. This difference in mass was observed following snow melt and persisted until halfway through the growing season. Given the importance of spiders as arthropod predators and as food sources for breeding birds, such a change in summer body mass could represent a shift in spiders’ functional contributions to Arctic ecosystems.

Historic land uses impose discernable legacy effects that may influence ecosystem function, a concern of particular importance in actively managed landscapes. In recent history (ca. 150 years) tree and shrub abundance has increased at the expense of native grasses in savannas and grasslands. The magnitude and patterns of change are spatially heterogeneous, highlighting the need for analytical approaches spanning multiple spatial scales, from individual plants to patches to landscapes. The overarching goal of this dissertation was to explore long-term dynamics associated with woody plant encroachment with aerial photography and field studies to examine cover, density, soils and land use history at the Santa Rita Experimental Range.The first study characterized patterns in woody cover change on contrasting soils over 60 years using aerial photography. Woody patch dynamics revealed encroachment and stabilization phases in woody plant proliferation. Soil properties reflected the rate at which uplands reached a dynamic equilibrium, but not the endpoint (ca. 35% cover). Fluctuations around dynamic equilibrium reflected net change in patch growth and acquiescence combined with colonization and mortality. Efforts to characterize changes in land cover will require patch-based assessments beyond coarse estimates of percent cover.The second study capitalized on historic field measurements of shrub canopies to validate estimates of shrub cover derived from the earliest aerial photography, quantified detection limitations of 1936 aerial photographs for mapping shrub cover, assessed species-specific contributions to percent cover, and translated detection limitations to proportions of velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina var Woot.) biomass missed with 1930s aerial photography.The third study was a field-based approach investigating how livestock grazing influenced mesquite cover, density, biomass, and stand structure over 74 years. The study supplemented traditional statistical analysis of grazing effects with methods quantifying spatial autocorrelation structure of mesquite density by grazing treatment. The outcome re-affirmed the supposition that mesquite cover may be dynamically stable at ca 30%, and revealed that livestock grazing slowed the shrub encroachment process from 1932 to 2006, counter to expectation. Results indicate that shrub growth trajectories persist long-term. Overall, this work affirms the importance of land use legacies and long-term perspectives in rangeland shrub dynamics.

Grasslands provide fundamental ecosystem services in many arid and semi-arid regions of the world, but are experiencing rapid increases in fire activity making them highly susceptible to post-fire accelerated soil erosion by wind. A quantitative assessment that integrates fire-wind erosion feedbacks is therefore needed to account for vegetation change, soil biogeochemical cycling, air quality, and landscape evolution. We investigated the applicability of a novel tracer technique – the use of multiple rare earth elements (REE) - to quantify aeolian soil erosion and to identify sources and sinks of wind-blown sediments in a burned and unburned shrub-grass transition zone in the Chihuahuan desert, NM, USA. Results indicate that the horizontal mass flux of wind-borne sediment increased approximately three times following the fire. The REE-tracer analysis of aeolian sediments shows that an average 88% of the horizontal mass flux in the control area was derived from bare microsites, whereas at the burned site it was derived from shrub and bare microsites, 42% and 39% respectively. The vegetated microsites, which were predominantly sinks of aeolian sediments in the unburned areas, became sediment sources following the fire. The burned areas exhibited a spatial homogenization of sediment tracers, highlighting a potential negative feedback on landscape heterogeneity induced by shrub encroachment into grasslands. Though fires are known to increase aeolian sediment transport, accompanying changes in the sources and sinks of wind-borne sediments likely influence biogeochemical cycling and land degradation dynamics. Our experiment demonstrated that REEs can be used as reliable tracers for field-scale aeolian studies. / Geology / Accompanied by one compressed .zip file: MET_Tower_Data.zip

Many grasslands in arid and semi-arid regions are undergoing rapid changes in vegetation, including encroachment of woody plants and invasive grasses, which can alter the rates and patterns of fire and sediment transport in these landscapes. We investigated the spatial distribution of sediments at the scale of vegetated microsites for three years following a prescribed fire using a multiple rare earth element (REE) tracer-based approach in a shrub-grass transition zone in the northern Chihuahuan desert (New Mexico, USA). To this end, we applied REE tracers – holmium, europium, and ytterbium on shrub, grass, and bare microsites, respectively in March 2016. Soil samples were collected from both burned and control (not burned) sites before (March) and after (June) the annual windy season, from 2016 through 2018. Results indicate that although the horizontal mass flux (HMF) of wind-borne sediment increased approximately threefold in the first windy season following the fire, and the HMF of both plots were not significantly different after three windy seasons. Comparing REE concentrations in sediments from both plots over the three years and three annual windy seasons, we observed a post-fire shift in source and sink dynamics of sediments. The tracer analysis of wind-borne sediments indicated that the source of the HMF in the burned site was mostly derived from shrub microsites following the fire, whereas the bare microsites were the major contributors for aeolian sediment in control areas. The shift in sources and sinks, and the spatial homogenization of REEs indicate that the removal of shrub vegetation resulted in sediment redistribution to the bare microsites even three years after the prescribed fire. The findings of this study will improve our understanding of post-fire geomorphic processes at a microsite scale in a grassland ecosystem undergoing land degradation induced by shrub encroachment. / Geology