This study was undertaken at a smallholder irrigation scheme in the previously disadvantaged rural area of Mamuhohi in the Limpopo Province. Like other smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa, Mamuhohi Irrigation Scheme has not performed particularly well. The expectations of interveners like politicians, development agencies and planners have not been realised in smallholder irrigation schemes. Constraints faced by smallholder farmers include a history of dependency; the high costs of mechanisation; the absence of credit, inputs, and output markets; insecure land tenure; “hedgehog behaviour” among smallholders; lack of funding; and poor management and maintenance of infrastructure. The White Paper on Agriculture (NDA, 1995) clearly set out government‘s intention to withdraw subsidies previously enjoyed by farmers and to ensure that the real costs of natural resources are reflected in the pricing of resources in order to discourage abuse. This resulted in the enacting of laws like the new National Water Act of 1998 (DWAF, 1998), aimed at sustainable water management. This included the rehabilitation of infrastructure prior to transfer, and the establishment of water users’ associations amongst farmers, which were to take over ownership and collective management of the schemes. The overall objective of the study was therefore to assess the sustainability and, more specifically, the economic viability of smallholder irrigation schemes in South Africa in the context of irrigation transfer. Hypothesis to be tested: <ul> The behaviour of smallholder farmers is diverse and is reflected in the way in which they view farming and engage in agricultural practices. </ul> The study also sought to indicate the existence of diversity in the smallholder irrigation scheme, by exposing different types of smallholder farmers within the scheme. This information should be of great importance in assisting smallholder farmers regarding issues of their own development. The findings will also help to curb the generalisation of developers’ perceptions regarding smallholder irrigation farmers. Smallholder irrigation farmers are feeling the full impact of the withdrawal of government assistance from the irrigation schemes, which have deteriorated to a state of partial collapse. A great need among farmers remains the rehabilitation of irrigation infrastructure, which would enable them to farm their land. As indicated earlier, the study found that diverse types of smallholder farmers exist within the irrigation scheme. This indicates that appropriate information in this regard is important for government in the formulation of policies aimed at the development of such farmers. Through this study, four types of smallholder farmers were identified within the same irrigation scheme. The methodology applied in achieving the aforementioned outputs pursued a specific sequence, starting with the formulation of questions. The particular study area was chosen due to the likelihood of the presence of different types of farmers that could be identified through the study. A list of the names of smallholders and other key information was provided by the local agricultural office. This assisted with the identification of people to be interviewed. The preliminary interviews were conducted with a sample size of 25 farmers and were aimed at gaining a better understanding of the people within the study area. The questionnaire used during these interviews contained open-ended questions that allowed respondents to express their views and make suggestions. This led to the development of a questionnaire consisting of closed-ended questions, aimed at eliciting responses that were relevant to the purpose of the survey. The questions were also as simple as possible to ensure that they would be clearly understood by both the interviewer and the respondents. About four weeks were spent in trying to understand the real setup of the study area and the lifestyle of the local community. The second step in the methodological sequence was the collection of data from 60 farmers. These interviews were conducted with the assistance of two extension officers. It was not possible to interview all the farmers at once, and it took about two weeks to interview all 60 farmers. Fortunately, the farmers were extremely co-operative throughout the entire interview process. The third step in the methodological sequence was the processing of the data collected during the interviews. The typology here was developed by means of qualitative analysis and had to be refined over a period of time to ensure a valid typology of farmers. This necessitated the use of other data analysis tools, which ultimately contributed towards the classification of farmers according to different types. Four types of farmers were eventually identified, namely: Highly intensive maize growers; Vegetable growers; Diversified maize growers; and Intensive diversified growers. Lastly, the conclusion that can be drawn from the research is that any attempt to develop smallholder irrigation farmers requires an understanding of their diversity – hence this study’s intention to identify, in a scientific manner, the existence of such diversity. Understanding diversity amongst farmers also requires an understanding of the different strategies that farmers employ to ensure their livelihood. This means that both the socio-economic and institutional setting of such farmers must be understood. / Dissertation (MInstAgrar)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted

Thesis (M.Dev.) --University of Limpopo, 2011 / Agricultural development programs under the former apartheid homeland system which was dissolved in 1994 could not successfully achieve their objectives. The current democratic government reviewed the policies and programs put in place during apartheid era which eventually led to the implementation of the Revitalisation of Smallholder irrigation Schemes (RESIS) in line with the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) and Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) programs. It was anticipated that RESIS would among others improve agricultural productivity, play a role in local economic development, improve food security, provide improved benefits and the livelihoods of the rural communities where the schemes are situated. The aim of the study is to assess whether the RESIS program has had an impact so as to make recommendations for future similar programs. The objective of the study is to assess the impact of RESIS program on the livelihoods of the participants and to shed light on whether such programs can be used for poverty reduction, which is a key objective in the programs of LDA. Tšwelopele irrigation scheme in Greater Tubatse Municipality within Sekhukhune District Municipality was selected as the area at which the study was conducted. A random sample of 50 beneficiaries was selected from a total of 75 RESIS beneficiaries and divided into two strata, namely, full-time farmers (both male and female) and part-time farmers (male and female) farmers. Interviews were conducted through completion of questionnaires responded to by the selected participants and key informants in the scheme. Qualitative and quantitative methods were used to obtain the responses from the scheme participants and the data processed using SPSS. Based on the analysis of respondents‟ perceptions of the farmers, the study concludes that RESIS is perceived to have had a positive impact on the livelihoods of the beneficiaries. Gross margin analysis supports the farmers‟ perceptions.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / This thesis examines livelihoods in the wake of agricultural commercialization under the Revitalization of Smallholder Irrigation Schemes (RESIS) Programme and similar revitalization initiatives within the Olifants River Basin in Limpopo Province. The focus is on contractual joint ventures and strategic partnerships implemented within selected smallholder irrigation schemes. The thesis is based primarily on in-depth empirical studies conducted between October 2003 and March 2009 in three sites located in two Integrated Sustainable Rural Development Programme (ISRDP) poverty nodes namely, Greater Sekhukhune and Vhembe Districts. To a lesser extent, the thesis draws on findings from rapid appraisals of five additional study sites in Greater Sekhukhune District. Research findings showed that the performance of joint ventures and strategic partnerships had so far largely fallen short of expectations. With the exception of a minority of smallholders involved in RESIS-Recharge strategic partnerships, the promise of higher incomes and improved livelihoods had often remained elusive, while debts and potential losses of often meagre household assets loomed large, threatening to erode existing livelihoods and undermine government interventions. This was mainly because ‘viability’ in both the RESIS and RESIS-Recharge phases was narrowly seen in economic and technical terms, such that reduction of transaction costs often entailed the divesting of responsibilities to address issues of rural poverty and inequality. Subsistence production had largely given way to commercially-orientated farming, and weak monitoring of contract formulation and implementation meant that voices of marginalized poor and vulnerable people, particularly women and the elderly, were not being heard. Research findings further revealed that while RESIS-Recharge strategic partnerships increased incomes for a minority of smallholders, such arrangements did not meaningfully improve the productive, managerial and marketing skills of smallholders to ensure their effective participation in agriculture. Rather, strategic partnerships were creating a small class of black ‘arm-chair’ farmers, who played little or no active role and obtained few or no skills in commercial farming but perpetually depended upon and drew incomes from agribusiness initiatives run by externally-based agents. Adjunct to questions of sustainability for these farmers’ ability to participate in commercial farming, the thesis raises the question: What is the rationale for joint ventures and strategic partnerships in the context of South Africa’s Agricultural Sector Strategy objectives for support to black farmers? Contracts lacked mechanisms for equitable distribution of costs and benefits between contracted private partners and targeted smallholders, on the one hand, and the rest of members of local communities, on the other hand. Contracts also lacked provisions for postproject recapitalization of infrastructure and rehabilitation of degraded land. This raised questions about the longer term sustainability of productivity, natural resource base and livelihood security in smallholder irrigation schemes. The conclusion of this thesis is that the challenge of reducing rural poverty and inequality in smallholder irrigation schemes might not be resolved through existing institutional approaches to agricultural commercialization.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Agriculture)) -- University of Limpopo, 2014 / The study was designed to establish the impact of irrigation schemes on job creation and also from the jobs created to differentiate permanent from temporary jobs. The focus of the study was on three smallholder irrigation schemes (Mabunda, Mariveni and Seloane, the irrigation schemes are located in Greater Giyani, Greater Tzaneen and Ba- Phalaborwa municipalities respectively). For the purpose of the study, Mabunda will be addressed as scheme 1, Mariveni as Scheme 2 and Seloane will be addressed as Scheme 3.The main crops cultivated in the three irrigation schemes are citrus, coupled with vegetables to generate funds when citrus is out of season. The study employed a case study approach and used both qualitative and quantitative methods to collect data. The study was implemented in two phases: the first phase focused on irrigation scheme participants, while the second phase focused on the community structures (livestock committee, youth, water committee and tribal council) that have been affected by the establishment of the irrigation schemes. Data was collected from the irrigation schemes beneficiaries and community structures by means of a structured questionnaire. No random selection method was used in the selection of irrigation scheme beneficiaries. This was influenced by the small number of beneficiaries in the three schemes (56).It was only the community structures that were randomly selected. One hundred and five (105) people were interviewed representing different structures in all three villages. Out of this figure thirty five(35) people were interviewed per village. Data collected was organized into themes for analysis. Data was analyzed manually, where the coded questionnaires were recorded into a spread sheet. The process of analysis was carried out by using qualitative description and descriptive statistics. Data was manually analysed and the output was discussed using tabulation and cross-tabulation of variables with percentages in descriptive statistics. From the spread sheet data was summarized manually. For the period 2006 to 2009, the irrigation schemes anticipated to create 42 permanent job opportunities with the exception of 2006 where the projected jobs were 32. For the same period, the following temporary job opportunities were anticipated: 121 in 2006,236 in 2008, 240 in 2010, 234 in 2012,233 in 2014 and 232 in 2016. The irrigation schemes also anticipated to inject the monetary value into the community in the form of basic salaries. In 2006, R839,996.76 was injected into the community in the form of salaries, 2008 – R1,509,060.33, 2010 – R1,775,531.58,from 2012 – 2018. R2,045,130.36, R2,381,396.14 and R2,772,145.45 injected into the community respectively, while the divisional management team were expected to receive, R27,525, R36,800, R35,920, R43,857 and R54,118 in the form of performance bonuses, in 2008, 2010, 2012, 2014 and 2016 respectively. The actual permanent jobs created for the period 2005 to 2009 in Scheme 1, an average of 64.6 (the anticipated was 42), while the actual temporary jobs created averaged 395. Scheme 2, managed to create an average of 86 permanent jobs and 197 temporary jobs, while the anticipated was 42 and 240 respectively. In Scheme 3, averages of 74 permanent jobs were created while 55.4 temporary jobs were created. The irrigation schemes created more jobs than anticipated. This was influenced by the high rate of unemployment in the villages located next to the irrigation schemes and the irrigation schemes as the only job providers closer to the villages. Temporary workers are paid performance based salaries. For the period 2005 to 2009, they were paid as follows: in 2005, they were paid R0.35 per bag of oranges harvested. The actual salary earned per month was informed by the number of bags harvested for that particular month. The following years the salary was increased by five cent per bag. Permanent workers were paid an average salary of R2400.00 per month. The study recommended that the roads leading to the three irrigation schemes should be maintained to minimize fruit damage during transportation to the market. The schemes should also be financially assisted to acquire own farm equipment (tractors, trailers and trucks) and be trained on the maintenance of these equipment to reduce acquiring services from the private service providers. The three irrigation schemes use private transport to carry their produce to the market and they are charged for this service, hence, the acquisition of own transport is necessary.

Thesis (Ph.D. Agriculture. (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Many researchers in different parts of the world have advocated the use of irrigation water to reduce levels of poverty, especially among rural households. This is made possible through the development of irrigation schemes in these areas and giving the necessary support to these farmers. If this is done sufficiently, irrigation schemes` participants are sure to realise improved livelihoods and poverty reduction. However, different communities are faced with different challenges and are subjected to rules and norms applied in their respective communities. On one hand, farmers are individuals who also have personal beliefs and characteristics that may be critical in determining the success of their irrigation schemes. On the other hand, certain characteristics (e.g., unequal distribution of water and land) can be inherited as challenges by farmers in such communities, making it difficult to overcome and thus posing threats to the success of irrigation schemes. A purposive-multistage technique together with a simple random sampling were used to sample 300 smallholder farmers from the Vhembe and Sekhukhune districts of Limpopo Province. An analysis of data was done using a combination of analytic techniques such as the Binomial Logit, Principal Component Analysis, Multiple Regression Analysis, Poverty Indices and the Women Empowerment Agriculture Index. The latter was employed to examine whether or not there are efforts by the irrigation schemes to empower women. The main aim was to analyse the contribution and impact that irrigations schemes have on poverty reduction among smallholder farmers. There was also a need to consider the role that positive psychological capital may play in uplifting the hope, confidence, resilience and optimism by farmers in their irrigation schemes. The results revealed that women’s participation was high (58%) in the irrigation schemes as compared to men. However, this did not mean that women were empowered automatically. After administering the Women Empowerment Agriculture Index, it was found that women are actually disempowered in three (out of five) indicators that were used as a measure of empowerment. Meanwhile, most farmers who used irrigation, saw their livelihoods improve and their poverty status improve too. Irrigation was able to increase their yields, incomes, employment, and other household assets. It was again proven that positive psychological capital played a significant role in reducing poverty. However, factors such as lack of capital assets, social grants, illiteracy, old age, lack of vocational training and risk aversion in some instances contributed to poverty. In order to enhance the livelihoods of smallholder farmers, the government and other relevant bodies should see to it that agricultural extension services are improved and include vocational training for these farmers together with the provision of market information and business training. This may help farmers realise the importance of farming as a business and not relying on government for everything they need. A larger share of income for most farmers came from social grants and remittances. This is likely to have a negative impact on the success of irrigation schemes. Therefore, farmers need to be trained for self-reliance. The need to promote women’s participation in decision-making for water management and also suggests ways in which women’s access to water can be improved through equitable development cannot be overemphasised. There is also a need to conduct a study on the measurement and role of psychological capital in rural livelihoods using other methods such as revealed preference approach, experimental economics and behavioural economics.