Societies undergoing drastic transformation are often inundated with intergroup strife, particularly, when the transformation is accompanied by drastic shifts in groups' status (e.g., Bettlehem & Janowitz, 1964). The present dissertation project aimed to begin understanding the effects of such changes in group status on intergroup outcomes, and to identify psychological processes that may underlie these effects. To achieve these goals, two studies examined perceived dimensions of status change (magnitude, direction, and speed) in relation to outgroup-specific outcomes (unity and threat) and general diversity-related outcomes (attitudes toward equity, openness to diversity, and ethnocentrism). Study 1 was conducted with university students in Ukraine, and revealed that, although dimensions of status change did not predict general diversity-related outcomes, direction and speed interacted in predicting outgroup-specific outcomes among participants who perceived small status change; for these participants, perceptions of faster gains were associated with less unity and more threat. Study 2, conducted with an older and more diverse sample of Ukrainian citizens, replicated these patterns, but also found significant relationships between dimensions of status change and general diversity-related outcomes. Specifically, in addition to predicting less unity and more threat, perceptions of fast small gains also predicted less positive attitudes toward equity, less openness to diversity, and more ethnocentrism. Study 2 also tested threat and relative deprivation as psychological processes that may help explain these relationships. When threat and relative deprivation were included as mediators, fast small gains no longer negatively predicted intergroup outcomes; in fact, in the mediated model, faster gains, both small and large, were associated with more unity, more positive attitudes toward equity, more openness to diversity, and less ethnocentrism. The implications of these findings and avenues for future research are discussed.

Three experiments explored the way in which different framings of multiculturalism influence White American perceivers' attitudes towards ethnic minorities and inclusion of them in the national group. Results showed that while participants always preferred Whites to ethnic minorities, the difference in liking was largest when multiculturalism was described as permanent and Whites were present (vs. absent) in that description. In contrast, differences in liking did not vary by the role of Whites when multiculturalism was described as temporary (Studies 1 and 2). Second, Whites were always seen as more American than ethnic minorities, but particularly when Whites were present (vs. absent) in the description of multiculturalism regardless of the temporal framing (Studies 1 and 2). Third, participants experienced a greater need to affirm the White status quo when multiculturalism was described as permanent and Whites were present (vs. absent) in the description (Study 2). Finally, bias against ethnic minorities was greatest when the description of multiculturalism affirmed the primacy of White heritage in the definition of the nation. Overall findings suggest that not explicitly including the majority group in multiculturalism may lead to better relations between them and minority groups.

<p> The current study was conducted to examine the relationship between personal, internal variables, and various measures of video game ratings. Individual differences equated in the present study included trait aggression, video game preferences, sex, and gender identity. These measures were experimentally manipulated to evaluate various game ratings including ratings of violence, enjoyment, and age recommendations. Comparisons of ratings were made across E10+, T, and M rated video game conditions. Participants completed a demographic profile, the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire, the Bem Sex-Role Inventory, and a video game questionnaire, which was administered after viewing video game clips. Correlational analyses revealed that trait aggression was not significantly related to video game ratings. However, video game preference was correlated with higher enjoyment ratings in all game conditions and lower violence and age recommendation ratings in the M game condition. The results further revealed that sex was a significant factor for enjoyment and age recommendation ratings, but not ratings of violence in the offered video games. Regarding gender identity differences, masculinity was found to be correlated with higher violence ratings for the violent video game conditions; femininity was correlated with lower enjoyment ratings and higher age ratings in the most violent game condition. Implications for the ESRB video game ratings process and media portrayal of violent video game players are discussed in the context of the present study.</p>

<p> Social network use is often accompanied by a seductive allure that compels people to showcase themselves in the best light possible. This allure may theoretically be possible due to the concept of social comparison, a notion that is measured in part by the Facebook &ldquo;friend count,&rdquo; a numerical value representing the user&rsquo;s number of online friends in the Facebook community. As there is no known research measuring this effect on current states, to close this gap in the literature it is asserted here that a memorable loss of one of these friends can have negative consequences. This study attempted to gauge the effect of the loss of these friends, colloquially known as &ldquo;being unfriended.&rdquo; This piece posits that being unfriended will increase state shame and decrease state self-esteem. To that end, a quantitative, experimental study was employed using 41 male and female, college-enrolled participants from a Midwest junior college to determine vicissitudes to state shame and state self-esteem after being unfriended on Facebook. An independent measures t-test was used to compare group mean differences between those who could adequately remember being unfriended and those who had little to no recollection of a recent unfriending episode. Results of the statistical analysis revealed that participants in the treatment group had no statistically significant increase in shame or decrease in self-esteem than those in the control group. Additional research in this area is recommended to further investigate additional variables used in this study, overcome limitations, and to fully explore superfluous possibilities such as potential mediators.</p>

<p> This qualitative inquiry takes place within a growing body of interdisciplinary work dedicated to reimagining community, one&rsquo;s relationship to it, and ultimately one&rsquo;s place within the global community. The study is rooted in depth psychology&rsquo;s recognition that the psyche is independently real and everything has meaning. Community is an ongoing story: a living myth. One can tally all the concrete aspects of community yet still not understand what makes community. To better understand community, this study used a hermeneutic-phenomenological approach to explore the lived experience of those living in a small Tuscan village, Pari. This entailed relying on an archetypal mythological lens to interpret a rich harvesting of interviews, storytelling, dreamy attention, and the researcher&rsquo;s own reflections. The goal was to understand what it means to be part of this ancient community today, to appreciate the dynamics at work within the community psyche, and to dream the community on into the future. It was found that life in this community has a rhythmic structure that permeates everyone and everything. The most important common thread was that love connects people to this place. It was also found that as this once self-enclosed community becomes increasingly porous to the world, the population diversity increases and self-sufficiency decreases. It was concluded that Pari&rsquo;s myth is to become a global village. The community&rsquo;s challenge for survival is to integrate its core rhythmic structure with the incoming technology age. </p><p> <i>Keywords:</i> community, door, myth, rebirth, hermeneutic-phenomenology, Janus</p>

<p> This study explored the possibility that social connection is one element that can contribute to persistence in a simple meditation exercise using Beary, Benson, and Klemchuk&rsquo;s relaxation response exercise with the addition of a social element. Participants were 82 females, ages 30 to 65, with English as a first language, naive (less than 2 months experience) to meditation, who were drawn from the general population. They were screened to exclude hospitalized individuals and those who have been treated for a psychological condition within the last three years. Participants were randomized to two groups. Each group received written instructions, with the control group receiving generic instructions only and the experimental group receiving the same instructions with the addition of a social element. It was expected that the group receiving instructions with a social element would show greater persistence (i.e., participate more often in the exercise and continue to use the exercise over a longer time span) at a minimum p value of .05 and with at least a small effect size. It was expected that attachment type would moderate persistence, so attachment type was measured. The persistence data were not normally distributed, so a nonparametric equivalent to a <i> t</i> test, a Mann-Whitney <i>U,</i> was used to compare the persistence means for the experimental group and the control group. No significant effect was found. The sample obtained had too few individuals by attachment type per group to permit analysis of moderating effects of attachment type.</p>

<p> Psychology graduate trainees are exposed to a variety of stressors during their education, such as costly tuition, long hours of study, and demanding clinical work. There is a need for graduate institutions to help trainees build self-care skills; however, there is little agreement about the best approach for boosting these skills. The present study proposes that self-care training may benefit from helping students to build self-compassion (an attitude of warmth directed inward). To explore the possibility that self-compassion promotes student wellbeing, a sample of 122 mental health trainees was recruited from a large Midwestern training institution. Most participants were female (82.8%) and the mean age was 30.2 years. The sample was ethnically diverse. Over half identified as Caucasian (56.6%), with the reminder identifying as African American, Latino/a, Asian, Filipino, or American Indian or Alaska Native. All participants completed measures of three variables: self-compassion, self-care behavior, and perceived stress. The results showed that students with greater levels of self-compassion experience significantly lower levels of perceived stress (r = -.57, p &lt; .001) and engaged in significantly more self-care behavior (r = .64, p &lt; .001). Furthermore, self-care behavior partially mediated the effect of self-compassion on perceived stress, and this partial mediation effect was statistically significant (z = -3.42, p &lt; .001). These findings indicate that greater self-compassion is associated with more self-care behavior, which, in turn, is associated with reduced stress levels. Therefore, graduate institutions that wish to promote student wellbeing can benefit from teaching students ways to build self-compassion.</p>

<p> The literature to date on deception in psychotherapy is lacking in several areas, particularly in the exploration of therapists&rsquo; perceptions of being deceived in session. The current study explored the perceived frequency of client deception, therapists&rsquo; deception cue reliance, the content of perceived deception, detection confidence, perceived motivation to deceive, and the effect of the lie on several areas of treatment. Participants included psychologists who were generally representative of the population of practicing psychologists in the United States. Results indicated therapists significantly underestimate the frequency of client deception, relied on verbal information, and were generally confident in their detection ability. Results were mixed regarding the therapists&rsquo; understanding of their clients&rsquo; motivation for deception, but revealed the majority of therapists believed the lie negatively affected the therapeutic relationship. The current study&rsquo;s limitations are explored as well as suggestions for future research to further the literature on deception in psychotherapy.</p>

<p> An online survey was utilized where 31 participants answered questions about their Facebook usage and activities. In addition, information was provided about their partner and issues that stemmed from Facebook such as relationship strain and depressive symptoms. Moreover, time spent on Facebook was also examined. Results indicated a correlation between Facebook activities and levels of depression, meaning that participants reported experiencing depressive symptoms after engaging in Facebook activities and viewing their partner&rsquo;s Facebook profile. In addition, the results revealed that there was no significant association between time spent on Facebook and levels of depression. In other words, those who reported spending more time on Facebook did not report experiencing increased depressive symptoms or relationship strain. The social comparison theory posits that if individuals cannot evaluate themselves using physical standards, they will attempt to do it using social standards, especially when they experience uncertainty about their attitudes and opinions. Results revealed that individuals were less likely to access Facebook when they were unsure of their own thoughts, feelings, and intuition about the relationship. The results of this study indicated that Facebook activities can negatively affect relationships and cause individuals to experience depressive symptoms. More attention should be paid to Facebook usage and to the activities and behaviors of its users. Despite the positive effects of utilizing social network sites, negative experiences can occur due to the nature of the environment.</p><p>

<p> The digital landscape that we inhabit offers new ways of cultivating relationships. Humans are programmed to seek social acceptance and avoid social rejection. Facebook taps into this core motivation by offering variable social rewards. Habits are eventually formed that keep users coming back for more rewards. What impact does habituated Facebook use have on relationships and other criteria defined by well-being theories?</p><p> The sample for this study was 36 students who were recruited to participate in one or two phases of a sequential mixed methods study. The quantitative phase involved two surveys: the first, a validated instrument; the second, a 38-question survey created for the study to inquire about research participants&rsquo; experience using Facebook. For the qualitative phase, four students from the first phase were interviewed to further explore their experience with Facebook and well-being.</p><p> A central accomplishment of this study was the creation of a new Facebook well-being survey (FWBS). The design of this survey guided the data analysis which uncovered the key findings of this study. Results were divided into four categories of time that participants spent using Facebook per day. Half of the categories, including the largest, showed a positive correlation between well-being and the amount of time spent creating content.</p><p> Overall, participants reported that they spend significantly more time consuming (65%) than creating (35%) Facebook content. The FWBS asked participants to rank their favorite Facebook features from most to least used. Private and public messages were the most popular with Likes ranking high for the creation of content. Participants with very high well-being scores mostly used messaging features while those with very low well-being scores spent their time using other Facebook features in addition to messaging.</p><p> Emotions and relationships were the well-being components most impacted by Facebook. Sixty-five percent of participants reported they have unhealthy Facebook habits. Facebook can help with loneliness but is also a distraction, time-killer, and social-crutch. Unless Facebook is used wisely and sparingly it reduces well-being. To be a socially engaged in the Millennial Generation a Facebook account is not optional.</p>